OpenStax Psychology 2e – Chapter 2 Research

Vocabulary flashcards covering key research concepts, methods, ethics, and terminology from Chapter 2.

Research

A mandatory, systematic process of collecting empirical evidence to validate or refute claims.

Empirical

Grounded in objective, tangible evidence that can be repeatedly observed regardless of who observes.

Deductive Reasoning

Logic that begins with a general premise to predict specific results (general ➔ specific).

Inductive Reasoning

Logic that draws broad conclusions from specific observations (specific ➔ general).

Theory

A well-developed set of ideas that explains observed phenomena.

Hypothesis

A tentative, testable, and falsifiable “if–then” statement about the relationship between variables.

Falsifiable

Capable of being shown to be incorrect through evidence.

Clinical / Case Study

In-depth research focusing on a single individual in an extreme or unique circumstance.

Naturalistic Observation

Observing behavior in its natural setting without manipulation or interference.

Observer Bias

Tendency for observations to be skewed to align with the observer’s expectations.

Survey

A list of questions used to gather large amounts of data from a sample of a population.

Sample

A subset of individuals selected from a larger population for study.

Archival Research

Examining existing records or data sets to answer research questions or find patterns.

Longitudinal Research

Studying the same group of individuals repeatedly over a long period.

Cross-Sectional Research

Comparing multiple segments of a population at a single point in time.

Attrition

Reduction in the number of research participants as some drop out over time.

Correlation

A relationship between two or more variables where they change together.

Correlation Coefficient (r)

A number from –1 to +1 indicating the strength and direction of a correlation.

Positive Correlation

Both variables move in the same direction (increase together or decrease together).

Negative Correlation

Variables move in opposite directions; one increases while the other decreases.

Confounding Variable

An unanticipated outside factor that affects both variables, giving a false impression of causation.

Illusory Correlation

Perceiving a relationship between variables when none actually exists.

Confirmation Bias

Tendency to ignore evidence that disproves pre-existing beliefs.

Cause-and-Effect Relationship

Changes in one variable directly produce changes in another; established only through experiments.

Experiment

A research design that manipulates an independent variable to observe its effect on a dependent variable.

Experimental Group

Participants who receive or experience the manipulated variable.

Control Group

Participants who do not receive the manipulation; basis for comparison.

Operational Definition

Exact description of how variables are measured and manipulated in a study.

Experimenter Bias

Researcher expectations unintentionally influence study outcomes.

Participant Bias

Participant expectations influence their behavior or responses in a study.

Single-Blind Study

Participants are unaware of group assignments; controls for participant bias.

Double-Blind Study

Neither researchers nor participants know group assignments; controls for both experimenter and participant bias.

Placebo Effect

Changes in participants’ behavior caused by their expectations rather than the experimental treatment.

Independent Variable

The factor manipulated or controlled by the experimenter.

Dependent Variable

The factor measured to assess the effect of the independent variable.

Population

The entire group a researcher wishes to understand or describe.

Random Sample

Subset of the population in which every member has an equal chance of selection.

Random Assignment

Equal-chance placement of participants into experimental or control groups; necessary for causal inference.

Quasi-Experiment

Study resembling an experiment but lacking random assignment or manipulation of certain variables (e.g., sex).

Statistical Analysis

Procedures that determine the likelihood that group differences occurred by chance (significance).

Peer-Reviewed Journal Article

Manuscript evaluated anonymously by experts before publication to ensure quality and clarity.

Replication

Repeating a study to verify reliability and expand upon original findings.

Reliability

Consistency and reproducibility of a measurement or result.

Inter-Rater Reliability

Degree of agreement among different observers recording the same event.

Validity

Accuracy in measuring what a test or instrument is intended to measure.

Institutional Review Board (IRB)

Committee that reviews and approves research proposals involving human participants for ethical compliance.

Informed Consent

Process of informing participants about the study, risks, and rights, then obtaining voluntary agreement.

Deception

Purposely misleading participants to maintain study integrity when necessary and non-harmful.

Debriefing

Providing complete, truthful information to participants after a study, especially if deception was used.

Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee (IACUC)

Committee that reviews research proposals involving non-human animals to ensure ethical treatment.