AP Psych- Unit 3

learning

a relatively permanent change in an organism's behavior due to experience.

habituation

an organism's decreasing response to a stimulus

with repeated exposure to it

associative learning

learning that certain events occur together. The events may be two stimuli (as in classical conditioning) or a response and its consequences (as in operant conditioning).

classical conditioning

a type of learning in which an organism comes to associate stimuli. A neutral stimulus that signals an unconditioned stimulus (UCS) begins to produce a response that anticipates and prepares for the unconditioned stimulus.

behaviorism

the view that psychology (1) should be an objective science that (2) studies behavior without reference to mental processes. Most research psychologists today agree with (1) but not with (2).

neutral stimulus

(prior to conditioning) is a stimulus that produces no response other than catching your attention.

unconditioned response (UCR)

in classical conditioning, the unlearned, naturally occurring response to the unconditioned stimulus (UCS), such as salivation when food is in the mouth.

unconditioned stimulus (UCS)

in classical conditioning, a stimulus that unconditionally—naturally and automatically—triggers a response.

conditioned response (CR)

in classical conditioning, the learned response to a previously neutral (but now conditioned) stimulus (CS).

conditioned stimulus (CS)

in classical conditioning, an originally irrelevant stimulus that, after association with an unconditioned stimulus (US), comes to trigger a conditioned response.

acquisition

in classical conditioning, the initial stage, when one links a neutral stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus so that the neutral stimulus begins triggering the conditioned response. In operant conditioning, the strengthening of a reinforced response.

higher-order conditioning

a procedure in which the conditioned stimulus in one conditioning experience is paired with a new neutral stimulus, creating a second (often weaker) conditioned stimulus. For example, an animal that has learned that a tone predicts food might then learn that a light predicts the tone and begin responding to the light alone. (Also called second-order conditioning.)

extinction

A process by which a response that has been learned is weakened by the absence or removal of stimuli or reinforcement.

spontaneous recovery

the reappearance, after a pause, of an extinguished conditioned response.

generalization

responding similarly to a range of similar stimuli

discrimination

in classical conditioning, the learned ability to distinguish between a conditioned stimulus and stimuli that do not signal an unconditioned stimulus.

learned helplessness

showed the hopelessness and passive resignation an animal (or human) learns when unable to avoid repeated aversive events. Experiment initially done by Martin Seligman.

operant conditioning

a type of learning in which behavior is strengthened if followed by a reinforcer or diminished if followed by a punisher.

operant behavior

the network of factors and events involved in the behavior of human and non-human animals

law of effect

The principle that behaviors are selected by their consequences..rewarded behavior is likely to occur again. (Edward Thorndike)

shaping

an operant conditioning procedure in which reinforcers guide behavior toward closer and closer approximations of the desired behavior.

discriminative stimulus

in operant conditioning, a stimulus that elicits a response after association with reinforcement (in contrast to related stimuli not associated with reinforcement).

reinforcer

in operant conditioning, any event that strengthens the behavior it follows.

positive reinforcement

increasing behaviors by presenting positive stimuli, such as food. Any stimulus that, when presented after a response, strengthens the response.

negative reinforcement

increasing behaviors by stopping or reducing negative stimuli, such as shock. Any stimulus that, when removed after a response, strengthens the response.

primary reinforcer

an innately reinforcing stimulus, such as one that satisfies a biological need.

conditioned (secondary) reinforcer

a stimulus that gains its reinforcing power through its association with a primary reinforcer; (we need to learn this is important)

continuous reinforcement schedule

reinforcing the desired response every time it occurs. (Goes away easily or quickly once reinforcement is gone.)

partial (intermittent) reinforcement schedule

reinforcing a response only part of the time; results in slower acquisition of a response but much greater resistance to extinction than does continuous reinforcement.

fixed-ratio schedule

in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified number of responses. (Causes very fast responding as subject knows what to do to get rewarded.)

variable-ratio schedule

in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response after an unpredictable number of responses. (Causes very fast responding as subject doesn't know how much they have to do to get reward; very resistant to extinction)

fixed- interval schedule

in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified time has elapsed.

variable-interval schedule

in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response at unpredictable time intervals.

punishment

an event that decreases the behavior that it follows. (can be positive or negative)

positive punishment

Administer an aversive (unfavorable) stimulus to decrease behavior. (i.e., spanking, receiving a parking ticket)

negative punishment

Withdraw a desirable stimulus to decrease behavior. (i.e., child on a time out, having driver's license taken away)

cognitive map

a mental representation of the layout of one's environment.

latent learning

learning that occurs but is not apparent until there is an incentive to demonstrate it.

insight

a sudden and often novel realization of the solution to a problem; it contrasts with strategy-based solutions.

intrinsic motivation

a desire to perform a behavior effectively for its own sake.

extrinsic motivation

a desire to perform a behavior to receive promised rewards or avoid threatened punishment.

observational learning

learning by observing others (also called social learning); primary experiment done by Albert Bandura with Bobo Doll

modeling

the process of observing and imitating a specific behavior

Instinctive Drift

Tendency for animals to move towards their biologically predisposed instinctive behaviors.

Aversive Conditioning

a technique used to reduce the appeal of behaviors one wants to eliminate by associating them with physical or psychological discomfort (Associating something negative with a behavior one wants to stop.)

Taste Aversion

is a learned response to eating spoiled or toxic food. When this takes place, you avoid eating the foods that make you ill. It can be so powerful that sometimes you also avoid the foods that you associate with an illness, even if the food did not cause the illness.

Biological Predispositions

biological constraints predispose organisms to learn associations that are naturally adaptive.

Immediate Reinforcer

A type of reinforcer that occurs instantly after a behavior.

(A rat gets a food pellet for a bar press.)

Delayed Reinforcer

A type of reinforcer that is delayed in time for a certain behavior. (A paycheck that comes at the end of a week.)

Token Economy

Every time a desired behavior is performed a reward/token is given. One can trade tokens for a variety of prizes (reinforcers); Used in homes, prisons, mental institutions, therapy and prisons

Overjustification Effect

when an expected external incentive such as money/prizes decreases a person's intrinsic motivation to perform a task.

cognitive learning

the acquisition of mental information, whether by observing events, by watching others, or through language

preparedness

evolutionary predisposition to learn some pairings of feared stimuli over others owing to their survival value

stimulus

any event or situation that evokes a response

reinforcement

in operant conditioning, any event that strengthens the behavior it follows

reinforcement schedule

a pattern that defines how often a desired response will be reinforced

Pairing

often seen in a classical conditioning, the connection between a UCS & CS

genetic inheritance

the genetic information that gets passed from one generation to another

Nature vs. Nurture

name for a controversy in which it is debated whether genetics or environment is responsible for driving behavior

nurture

(v.) to bring up, care for, train, nourish; (n.) rearing, training, upbringing - the environment

Erik Erikson

Known for his 8-stage theory of Psychosocial Development

Infancy Stage (Erikson)

(1/8): Trust vs. Mistrust (0-1)

Key event: feeding

Early childhood stage

1.5 to 3, Autonomy vs. Shame & Doubt, control of self.

Success = Control, adequacy, will power.

Failure = Fear of independenc, self-doubt.

preschool stage (Erikson)

initiative vs guilt.

takes place during the preschool years.

At this point in psychosocial development, children begin to assert their power and control over the world through directing play and other social interactions.

Children who are successful at this stage feel capable and able to lead others.

school age

(6-11 years old) industry vs inferiority, Children need to cope with new social and academic demands. Success leads to a sense of competence, while failure results in feelings of inferiority.

Adolescence Stage (Erikson)

: Identity vs. Role Confusion (12-18 years old)

Key event: sense of identity

Success leads to an ability to stay true to yourself, while failure leads to role confusion and a weak sense of self.

Young adulthood

Intimacy vs. Isolation

(20s to early 40s)

Young adults struggle to form close relationships and to gain the capacity for intimate love, or they feel socially isolated

Middle Adulthood Stage

Generavity vs. Stagnation: seventh of eight stages of human development. Key event: supporting the next generation, age range: 40 to 65.

maturity stage

(65 to death)

Ego Integrity vs Despair

Success at this stage leads to feelings of wisdom, while failure results in regret, bitterness, and despair.

Jean Piaget

Swiss psychologist Known for his theory of cognitive development in children

sensorimotor stage

in Piaget's theory, the stage (from birth to about 2 years of age) during which infants know the world mostly in terms of their sensory impressions and motor activities

preoperational stage

in Piaget's theory, the stage (from 2 to about 6 or 7 years of age) during which a child learns to use language but does not yet comprehend the mental operations of concrete logic.

concrete operational stage

in Piaget's theory, the stage of cognitive development (from about 6 or 7 to 11 years of age) during which children gain the mental operations that enable them to think logically about concrete events

conservation

the principle (which Piaget believed to be a part of concrete operational reasoning) that properties such as mass, volume, and number remain the same despite changes in the forms of objects

formal operational stage

in Piaget's theory, the stage of cognitive development (normally beginning about age 12) during which people begin to think logically about abstract concepts

Teratogens

agents, such as chemicals and viruses, that can reach the embryo or fetus during prenatal development and cause harm

gross motor skills

physical abilities involving large body movements, such as walking and jumping

fine motor skills

physical abilities involving small body movements, especially of the hands and fingers, such as drawing and picking up a coin

Diana Baumrind

Developed the Four Parenting Styles: Authoritarian, Authoritative, Permissive, Rejecting-neglecting

authoritative parenting

parenting style characterized by emotional warmth, high standards for behavior, explanation and consistent enforcement of rules, and inclusion of children in decision making

authoritarion parenting

impose rules and expect obedience

permissive parenting

A parenting style characterized by the placement of few limits on the child's behavior.

neglectful parenting

a parenting style characterized by a lack of parental involvement in the child's life

Konrad Lorenz

researcher who focused on critical attachment periods in baby birds, a concept he called imprinting

Harry Harlow

Studied attachment in monkeys with artificial mothers