AP Psychology Unit 3 - Development and Learning

AP Psychology Unit 3 (2025)

Developmental Psychologists

Psychologists who study how our thoughts and behaviors change over the course of our entire lives

Nature

Refers to genetic factors

Nurture

Refers to environmental factors

Cross-Sectional Research

A method of research that uses participants of different ages to compare how certain variables may change over the lifespan

Longitudinal Research

A research method that examines one group of participants over time

Teratogens

Certain chemicals or agents that can cause harm to an unborn child if ingested or contacted by the mother

E.g. alcohol, psychoactive drugs, and certain viruses

Fetal Alcohol Syndrome (FAS)

A serious condition resulting from the mother's alcohol consumption during pregnancy, leading to physical, behavioral, and cognitive defects in the child (Such as malformed skull and intellectual disability)

Reflexes

Specific, inborn, automatic responses to certain specific stimuli

Rooting Reflex

When touched on the cheek, a baby will turn their head towards the side where they felt the touch and seek to put the object in their moutn

Sucking Reflex

When an object is placed into a infant’s mouth, they will suck

Grasping Reflex

If an object is placed into a baby’s palm or foot pad, the baby will try to grasp the object with his or her fingers or toes

Moro Reflex

When startled, a baby will fling their limbs out and then quickly retract them, making themselves as small as possible

Babinski Reflex

When a baby’s foot is stroked, they will spread their toes

Motor Skills

The abilities that enable movement and coordination of the body, including both gross motor skills (large movements) and fine motor skills (small, precise movements)

Gross Motor Skills

The abilities that involve the use of large muscle groups for movements such as running, jumping, and climbing

Gender Roles

The societal expectations and behaviors considered appropriate for individuals based on their gender. These roles can influence personality, interests, and overall development

Continuous vs. Discontinuous

A debate in developmental psychology concerning whether development occurs in a gradual, steady rate, or through distinct stages that include rapid development and relatively no change

Gender Schema

The cognitive framework that children develop to understand and organize information about gender

Growth Spurt

A rapid increase in physical growth and development that often occurs during puberty, affecting height and weight

Zone of Proximal Development

A concept created by Lev Vygotsly, it encompasses the range of tasks a child can perform independently and tasks the child needs assistance with

Scaffolding

When a more knowledgeable person provides support to a learner to help them achieve a new skill

Psychosocial Stage Theory

A developmental theory created by Erik Erikson, it is one of the first to propose changes throughout the whole life. It involves eight stages, each involving a specific social conflict

Trust vs. Mistrust

The first stage in Erikson’s Psychosocial Theory. It spans from ages 0 to 1.5 years, and the crisis involves learning to trust the caregiver

E.g. a crying baby learns whether their parent will come feed them when they’re hungry

Autonomy vs. Doubt

The second stage in Erikson’s Psychosocial Theory. It spans from ages 1.5 to 3 years, and the crisis involves a child making their own decisions and gaining independence

E.g. a toddler putting on their shoes, will the parent let them or try to help?

Initiative vs. Guilt

The third stage in Erikson’s Psychosocial Theory. It spans from ages 3 to 6 years, and the crisis involves children asserting themselves and taking control

E.g. children often make friends who will back them up and take their side

Industry vs. Inferiority

The fourth stage in Erikson’s Psychosocial Theory. It spans from ages 6 to 12 years, and the crisis involves children comparing themselves to other children

E.g. children who are always picked last in class will start to develop a sense of inferiority

Identity vs. Role Confusion

The fifth stage in Erikson’s Psychosocial Theory. It spans from ages 12 to 18, and the crisis becomes internal as the person tries to figure out who they are and what they want to become

E.g. people change how they look, their friend groups, their music

Intimacy vs. Isolation

The sixth stage in Erikson’s Psychosocial Theory. It spans ages 19 to 40 years, and the crisis involves finding people to share yourself with

E.g. many people form friendships and romantic relationships with people from college, work, etc

Generativity vs. Stagnation

The seventh stage in Erikson’s Psychosocial Theory. It spans ages 40 to 65 years, and the crisis involves feeling satisfied and productive with your life/life choices

E.g. someone with an unfulfilling job will find other ways to feel good about their place

Integrity vs. Despair

The eighth stage in Erikson’s Psychosocial Theory. It spans ages 65 to death, and the crisis involves looking back and wondering if you’ve lived a meaningful life

E.g. someone who is older and feels their time running out may be extra worried about if they’ve made their mark

Imaginary Audience

A psychological phenomenon often experienced by adolescents, where they believe they are the center of attention and everyone is watching and evaluating their behavior. This perception can lead to feelings of self-consciousness and heightened concern about public image

Assimilation

A process where we incorporate new information into existing schemata

Accommodation

A process where we modify existing schemas to fit new experiences

Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development

A comprehensive framework created by Jean Piaget that outlines how children's cognitive abilities develop through distinct stages: sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational, and formal operational

Sensorimotor Stage

The first stage in Piaget’s Theory of Development, it ranges from ages birth to 2. In this stage, children explore the world through their senses, develop object permanence, and develop separation anxiety

Object Permanence

The understanding that items still exist in the world even when not being sensed

Separation Anxiety

When children become distressed when they are removed from the caregiver they are used to/attached to

Preoperational Stage

The second stage in Piaget’s Theory of Development, it ranges from ages 2 to 7. Children develop language, symbolic thinking, and engage in pretend play. Children still struggle with logic and exhibit characteristic errors in thinking (Like animism and egocentrism)

Animism

When children assign human traits to inanimate objects

Egocentrism

When children assume everybody shares their perspective/are very selfish in their actions and thinking