AP Psychology - Unit 1

Biological Bases of Behavior

Neuroanatomy

The study of the parts and function of neurons

Neurons

Individual nerve cells (make up our entire nervous system)

Dendrites

Rootlike parts of the cell that stretch out from the cell body

Synaptic Connections

The junctions where neurons communicate with each other or with other cells like muscle or gland cells

Cell Body (Soma)

Contains the nucleus and other parts of the cell needed to sustain its life

Axon

Wirelike structure ending in the terminal buttons that extends from the cell body

Terminal Buttons

The end points of a neuron’s axon, where it forms synapses with other cells or the branched end of the axon that contains neurotransmitters

Myelin Sheath

A fatty covering around the axon of some neurons that speeds neural impulses

Neural Impulse

An electrochemical signal that is sent from neurons to other neurons, or to muscles and glands that are controlled by neurons

Neurotransmitters

Chemicals contained in terminal buttons that enable neurons to communicate. Neurotransmitters fit into receptor sites on the dendrites of neurons (Ex: A key fitting into a lock)

Synapse

The space between the terminal buttons of one neuron and the dendrites of the next neuron

All - or - None Principle

A neuron either fires completely or doesn’t fire at all. Impulse strength is always the same —> Neurons cannot fire ‘a little’ or ‘a lot’

Excitatory Neurotransmitters

Neurotransmitters that stimulate the next neuron to fire

Inhibitory Neurotransmitters

Neurotransmitters that prevent the next neuron from firing

Synaptic Gap (Synaptic Cleft)

The small gap between two neurons at a synapse

Neural Firing

An electrochemical process in which electricity travels within the cell (from the dendrites to the terminal buttons), and chemicals (neurotransmitters) travel between cells in the synapse. Electricity does not jump between the neurons

Afferent Neurons (Sensory Neurons)

Neurons that take information from the senses to the brain

Interneurons

Once information reaches the brain or spinal cord, interneurons take the message and send them elsewhere in the brain or on to efferent neurons

Efferent Neurons (Motor Neurons)

Neurons that take information from the brain to the rest of the body

Acetylcholine

Involved in motor movement, lack of it is associated with Alzheimer’s Disease

Dopamine

Involved in motor movement and alertness; FEEL GOOD; lack of it is associated with Parkinson’s Disease, an overabundance is associated with Schizophrenia

Endorphins

Involved in pain control; involved in addictions by reducing pain

Serotonin

Involved in mood control; lack of it is associated with clinical depression

Spinal Cord

A bundle of nerves that run through the center of the spine. It transmits information from the rest of the body to the brain

Lesioning

The removal or destruction of part of the brain

Electroencephalogram (EEG)

A machine that records the electrical activity of the brain

Computerized Axial Tomography (CAT or CT)

A diagnostic imaging procedure that uses a combination of x-rays and computer technology to produce images of inside the body

Tomography

A process that generates detailed images of internal structures by creating cross-sectional slices of the body

Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI)

A medical imaging technique that uses strong magnetic fields and radio waves to create detailed images of the inside of the body

Carcinogenic Radiation

High energy radiation, such as x-rays, gamma rays, alpha particles, beta particles, and neutrons, that can damage DNA and cause cancer

Positron Emission Tomography (PET)

A medical imaging technique that uses radioactive substances called radio tracers to create detailed images of the body’s organs and tissues

Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI)

A system that uses magnetic resonance Imaging to measure the tiny changes in blood flow that take place when a certain part of your brain is working

Hindbrain

The region of the developing vertebrate brain that is composed of the medulla oblongata, the pons, and the cerebellum

Medulla Oblongata

A vital part of the brain stem responsible for regulating essential bodily functions like breathing, heart rate, and blood pressure

Pons

A part of the brain stem that links the brain to the spinal cord, specifically located between the midbrain and the medulla oblongata

Cerebellum

The part of the brain that helps coordinate muscle movement and regulate a wide range of functions and processes in both your brain and body

Midbrain

A small central part of the brain stem, developing from the middle of the primitive or embryonic brain

Reticular Formation

A net like collection of cells throughout the midbrain. It controls general body arousal and the ability to focus (attention)

Forebrain

The anterior part of the brain, including the cerebral hemispheres, the thalamus, and the hypthalamus

Thalamus

A relay station In the brain that processes and transmits sensory information (except smell) to the appropriate areas of the cerebral cortex. It plays a key role in consciousness, alertness, and perception

Hypothalamus

A small structure in the brain that helps maintain homeostasis. It controls vital functions related to hunger, thirsts, body temperature, and emotions by communicating with the endocrine system

Homeostasis

Internal Balance

Hippocampus

The two arms that surround the thalamus; responsible for long-term memory

Amygdala

Structures near the end of each hippocampal arm

Peripheral Nervous System

The nervous system outside the brain and spinal cord

Somatic Nervous System

A division of the peripheral Nervous system responsible for voluntary muscle movements and receiving sensory information from the body

Autonomic Nervous System

A component of the peripheral nervous system that regulates involuntary physiologic processes including heart rate, blood pressure, respiration, digestion, and sexual arousal

Sympathetic Nervous System

The part of the autonomic nervous system that controls the speeding up of our body after a stress response

Parasympathetic Nervous System

The part of the autonomic nervous system that controls the slowing down of our body after a stress response

Fissures

A wrinkle found in the brain that divides major regions of the cerebral cortex

Cerebral Cortex

The outermost layer of the brain, responsible for higher-level thinking, reasoning, perception, and voluntary movement

Contralateral Control

The left hemisphere gets sensory messages and controls the motor function of the right half of the body. The right hemisphere gets sensory messages and controls the motor function of the left half of the body

Brain Lateralization (Hemispheric Specialization)

The specialization of function in each hemisphere

Corpus Callosum

The nerve bundle that connects the two hemispheres and allows communication between them

Split-Brain-Patients

Patients whose corpus callosum has been cut to treat severe epilepsy

Association Area

Any area of the cerebral cortex that is not associated with receiving sensory information or controlling muscle movements

Prefrontal Cortex

The anterior part of the frontal lobe that plays a crucial role in directing thought processes

Broca’s Area

A part of the frontal lobe that is responsible for controlling the muscles involved in producing speech

Motor Cortex

A thin vertical strip at the back of the frontal lobe

Sensory Cortex (Somato-Sensory-Cortex)

A thin vertical strip that receives incoming touch sensations from the rest of our body

Wernicke’s Area

The part of the temporal lobe that is responsible for interpreting written and spoken language

Endocrine System

A system of glands that secrete hormones that affect many different biological processes in our bodies

Adrenal Glands

Glands that produce adrenaline, which signals the rest of the body to prepare for fight or flight

Genes

Certain segments of DNA that control the production of specific proteins that control some human traits

Monozygotic Twins

Identical twins (They develop from one fertilized egg called a zygote)

Turner’s Syndrome

Babies that are born with only a single X chromosome

Klinefelter’s Syndrome

Babies that are born with an extra X chromosome (XXY pattern)

Down Syndrome

Babies that are born with an extra chromosome on the twenty-first-pair

Expressive Aphasia

The loss of the ability to speak

Receptive Aphasia

The loss of the ability to comprehend written and spoken language

Evoked Potentials (Used in EEG’s)

When the recorded change in voltage results from a response to a specific stimulus presented to the subject

Magnetoencephalogram (MEG)

Scans that are able to detect the slight magnetic field caused by the electric potentials in the brain

Gyri

The peaks of the surface of the cortex

Sulchi

The valleys of the surface of the cortex

Basal Ganglia

Regulates initiation of movements, balance, eye movements, and posture, and functions in the processing of implicit memories

Glial Cells

Cells that guide the growth of developing neurons, help provide nutrition for and get rid of wastes of neurons, and form an insulating sheath around neurons that speeds conduction

Neurogenesis

The growth of new neurons, takes place throughout life

Effectors

Muscle and gland cells

GABA (Gamma Aminobutyric Acid)

Important inhibitory neurotransmitter —> involved in seizures and sleep problems —> shuts down parts of the brain

Glutamate

Excitatory neurotransmitter involved in memory —> causes migraines and seizures

Norepinephrine

Involved in alertness, arousal —> effects include depression

Hormones

Chemical messengers

Pineal Gland

ENdocrine glands in the brain that produces melatonin that helps regulate circadian rhythms and is associated with seasonal affective disorder

Seasonal Affective Disorder (SAD)

A type of depression that comes and goes with the seasons

Pituitary Gland

AN endocrine gland in the brain that produces stimulating hormones, which promote secretion by other glands

Thyroid Gland

(Butterfly Shaped) An endocrine gland in the neck that produces thyroxine, which stimulatees and maintains metabolic activites

Parathyroids

Endocrine glands in the neck that produce parathyroid hormone, which helps maintain calcium ion level in blood necessary for normal functioning of neurons

Pancreas

A gland near the stomach that secretes the hormones insulin and glucagon, which regulate blood sugar that fuels all behavioral processes —> Diabetes

Nature v Nurture Controversy

The extent to which heredity and the environment each influence behavior

Dizygotic Twins

(Fraternal Twins) that share about half of the same genes because they develop from two different fertilized eggs or zygotes

Heritability

The proportion of variation among individuals in a population that is due to genetic causes

Genotype

The genetic makeup for a trait of an individual

Phenotype

The expressions of the genes or the traits of an organisms

Tay-Sachs-Syndroms

A syndrome that produces progressive loss of nervous function and death in a body

Albinism

A syndrome that arises from a failure to synthesize or store pigment and also involves abnormal nerve pathways to the brain, resulting in quivering eyes and the inability to perceive depth or three-dimensionality with both eyes

Phenylketonuria (PKU)

A syndrome that results in severe, irreversible brain damage unless the baby is fed a special diet low in phenylalanine within 30 days of birth; the infant lacks an enzyme to process this amino acid, which can build up and poison cells of the nervous system

Huntington’s Disease

A dominant gene defect that involves the degeneration of the nervous system

Preconsciousness

The level of consciousness that is outside of awareness but contains feelings and memories that you can easily bring into conscious awareness

Nonconsciousness

The level of consciousness devoted to processes completely inaccessible to conscious awareness, such as blood flow, filtering of blood by kidneys, secretion or hormones, and lower-level processing of sensations

Subconsciousness

The level of consciousness that includes often unacceptable feelings, wishes, and thoughts not directly available to conscious awareness