Semester 1 FRQ Terms

Hypothesis

A testable prediction

Theory

an explanation that organizes a large set of observations and data

**Survey**

Self-reporting behaviors

Experiment

When a researcher manipulates one variable to observe the effect on another. Can determine a cause-and-effect relationship.

Case Study

When one individual or group is studied in great depth.

Descriptive Research

Scientific investigation that seeks to systematically observe and record.

Naturalistic Observation

Behavior is observed and recorded in naturally occurring situations with no interference or control.

Experimental group

* **The portion of the sample that is exposed to the manipulated independent variable.**

Control group

* **The portion of the sample that is not exposed to the manipulated variable. Used for comparison.**

Double-Blind procedure

* **An experiment where both the participant and the researcher are ignorant about who is in the experimental group or control.**

Single-blind procedure

* **An experiment where the participant doesn’t know whether they are in the control group or experimental.**

Confounding variables

 A factor other than the independent variable that may produce an effect on the dependent variable. The third variable problem.

Hawthorne effect

a change in a subject's behavior caused simply by the awareness of being observed

Cohort effect

the impact on the result of a study due to the common or shared life experiences of the subjects

Informed consent

* **The principle that participants should be told enough about the study for them to enable them to choose whether they want to participate in the study or not.**

Protection from harm

* **The principle that participants should not be subjected to physical or psychological harm or injury.**

Confidentiality

The principle that a participant's information should be kept private and safeguarded.

Debriefing

* **The principle that participants should receive a post-experimentation explanation of the study including its purpose and any deceptions.**

Statistical significance

A numerical statement of how likely an obtained result occurred by chance. 

T-test

* **Used to calculate a p-value which will state the statistical significance.**

P-Value

* **The result of a t-test. If the p-value is less than or equal to .05, it means the data is statistically significant, meaning there's a 5% chance or less that the results occurred by chance. If the p-value is greater than .05, the results are not statistically significant.**

Correlation

The measure of the extent to which two variables are related. DOES NOT IMPLY CAUSATION.

Illusory correlation

* **A perceived but non-existent relationship between variables.**

Correlational coefficient

If 0 then no correlation, if positive 1 theres a positive correlation and if negative 1 then a negative correlation.

Biological Approach

Focuses on how the brain, body, and genetics enable behavior and mental processes

Behavioral Approach

Focuses on how we learn observable responses via learning principles.

Cognitive Approach

Focuses on how we encode, process, store, and retrieve information.

Evolutionary Approach

Focuses on how natural selection of traits has promoted the survival of genes.

Humanistic Approach

Focuses on how we meet our needs for love and acceptance and achieve self-fulfillment.

Psychodynamic Approach

Focuses on how behavior springs from unconscious drives and conflicts.

Social-Cultural Approach

Focuses on how behavior and mental processes vary across different cultures and situations.

Positive Punishment

decreasing or weakening a behavior by adding an undesirable or aversive stimulus.

Negative Punishment

decreasing or weakening a behavior by removing a desirable or pleasurable stimulus

Positive Reinforcement

increasing or strengthening a behavior by adding a desirable or pleasurable stimulus

Negative Reinforcement

Increasing or strengthening a behavior by removing an undesirable or aversive stimulus

Primary Reinforcer

an innately reinforcing stimulus, such as one that satisfies a biological need

Conditioned/Secondary Reinforcer

a stimulus that gains its reinforcing power through its association with a primary reinforcer

Reinforcement schedule

a pattern that defines how often a desired response will be reinforced

Continuous Reinforcement

response is reinforced every time it occurs; results in fastest acquisition but is not very resistant to extinction

Partial Reinforcement

response is reinforced intermittently; results in slower acquisition but is much more resistant to extinction.

fixed-ratio schedule

a response is reinforced after a specified number of responses

fixed-interval schedule

a response is reinforced after a specified amount of time has elapsed

variable-ratio schedule

a response is reinforced after an unpredictable number of responses.

variable-interval schedule

a response is reinforced after an unpredictable amount of time has elapsed.

Shaping

an operant conditioning procedure in which reinforcers guide behavior toward closer and closer approximations of the desired behavior.

Succesive approximations

in shaping, behaviors that are ordered in terms of increasing similarity or closeness to the desired response

observational learning / social learning

learning by observing others

functional fixedness

a type of mental set in which one tends to think of objects only in terms of their usual uses

framing effect

the impact of the way an issue is posed on decisions and judgements about that issue.

belief perseverance

the tendency to cling to one's initial conceptions even once they have been disproved or discredited

confirmation bias

a tendency to search for information that supports our preconceptions and to ignore or distort contradictory evidence

Frontal Lobe

The lobe involved in speaking, muscle movement, making plans, and judgement

Parietal Lobe

The lobe that receives sensory input for touch and is involved in mathematical and spatial reasoning

Temporal Lobe

The lobe that receives sensory input for audition.

Occipatal Lobe

The lobe that receives sensory input for vision

Left hemisphere

The hemisphere that controls logical things such as writing, calculations, and reading.

Brain lateralization

specialization of function in each hemisphere of the brain

Right hemisphere

The hemisphere that controls creativity, spatial ability, and musical/artistic skills.

limbic system

neural system (including the hippocampus, amygdala, and hypothalamus) located below the cerebral hemispheres; associated with emotions and drives

amygdala

two lima bean-sized neural clusters in the limbic system; linked to emotion, particularly fear and aggression

hippocampus

a neural center located in the limbic system that helps process memories for long-term storage

hypothalamus

a neural structure lying below the thalamus; it directs several maintenance activities, such as eating, drinking, body temperature, and helps govern the endocrine system via the pituitary gland

pituitary gland

the endocrine system's "master gland" which, under the influence of the hypothalamus, regulates growth and controls other endocrine glands.