AP US Government & Politics: Key Concepts and Foundations

Social Contract

The idea that people agree to give up some freedoms to a government in exchange for protection of their natural rights (life, liberty, property).

Direct Democracy

Citizens vote on laws themselves.

Representative Democracy

Citizens elect officials to make laws.

Mobocracy

A negative term for direct democracy when the majority oppresses minorities.

Popular Sovereignty

Government gets its power from the people.

Majority Rule

Decisions are made by whichever side gets more than 50% of votes.

Participatory Democracy

High citizen involvement.

Pluralist Democracy

Power shared among many competing groups.

Elite Democracy

Power held by a small group of wealthy/educated leaders.

Declaration of Independence

Announced independence and listed grievances.

Articles of Confederation

Created weak central government.

Constitution

Created stronger federal system.

Virginia Plan

Strong national government with representation by population.

New Jersey Plan

Equal state representation and weaker national government.

Great Compromise

Created bicameral Congress (House by population, Senate equal).

Electoral College

Electors (not direct vote) choose the president.

Three-fifths Compromise

Enslaved people counted as 3/5 of a person for representation/taxation.

Slave Trade Compromise

Allowed slave trade until 1808.

Federalists

Supported strong central government and Constitution.

Anti-Federalists

Feared strong government and wanted Bill of Rights.

Separation of Powers

Power divided among legislative, executive, judicial branches.

Checks and Balances

Each branch can check the others.

Federalist No. 51

Explains why separation of powers prevents tyranny.

Federalist No. 10

Argues large republic controls factions.

Brutus No. 1

Warns large republic will lose touch with people.

Formal Amendments

Change Constitution; proposed by 2/3 vote in both houses of Congress OR 2/3 of states.

Ratification of Amendments

Ratified by 3/4 of states (legislatures or conventions).

Republicanism

People elect representatives.

Limited Government

Government power is restricted by Constitution.

Elastic Clause

Lets Congress make laws 'necessary and proper'.

10th Amendment

Says powers not given to national government belong to states.

Supremacy Clause

Federal law beats state law.

Commerce Clause

Gives Congress power to regulate interstate trade.

Expressed Powers

Powers written in Constitution.

Implied Powers

Powers suggested by Elastic Clause.

Concurrent Powers

Powers shared by federal and state (tax, courts).

Reserved Powers

Powers only states have (education, marriage laws).

Formal Powers

Powers listed in Constitution.

Informal Powers

Traditions or influence (bully pulpit).

National Government

Federal level.

States' Rights

Argument that states should have more power.

Dual Federalism

Clear separation of federal/state powers.

Cooperative Federalism

Powers mixed and shared.

Fiscal Federalism

Use of money (grants) to influence states.

Regulatory Federalism

Federal rules states must follow.

Block Grants

Flexible money for broad purpose.

Categorical Grants

Money for specific purpose with strict rules.

Federal Mandate

Requirement on states.

Unfunded Mandate

No money provided.

Civil Liberties

Protections FROM government (speech, religion).

Civil Rights

Protections BY government (equal treatment).

Selective Incorporation

Applies Bill of Rights to states via 14th Amendment's Due Process Clause.

2nd Amendment

Protects right to bear arms.

McDonald v. Chicago

Incorporated 2nd Amendment to states.

1st Amendment

Protects freedom of religion, speech, press, assembly, petition.

Establishment Clause

Government cannot establish religion.

Engel v. Vitale

Banned school-sponsored prayer.

Free Exercise Clause

Protects religious practice.

Wisconsin v. Yoder

Allowed Amish to skip high school.

Clear and Present Danger Test

Speech can be limited if it creates clear and present danger; Schenck upheld limiting anti-draft speech during WWI.

Protected Speech

Political speech, symbolic speech.

Non-protected Speech

Libel, obscenity, fighting words.

Tinker v. Des Moines

Protected student armbands as symbolic speech unless disruptive.

New York Times v. United States

Government couldn't stop publication without heavy burden.

4th Amendment

Protects against unreasonable searches.

Exclusionary Rule

Keeps illegally obtained evidence out of court (Mapp v. Ohio).

5th Amendment

Protects against self-incrimination.

Miranda Rule

Requires warnings before questioning.

6th Amendment

Right to attorney.

Gideon v. Wainwright

Gave poor defendants free lawyers in felony cases.

8th Amendment

Bans cruel and unusual punishment.

Civil Rights Act of 1964

Banned discrimination in public places and employment.

Voting Rights Act of 1965

Banned voting barriers.

Jim Crow laws

Laws enforcing segregation.

Brown v. Board of Education

Ended school segregation.

Affirmative Action

Policies favoring underrepresented groups.

Public Opinion

What the public thinks about issues and leaders.

Scientific Poll

Random survey designed to represent the whole population.

Representative Sample

Small group that accurately reflects the larger population.

Sampling Error

Margin of error (±3%) due to random chance.

Benchmark Poll

Early poll to gauge voter attitudes before a campaign.

Tracking Poll

Daily polls to see changes during a campaign.

Entrance/Exit Poll

Voters surveyed as they leave polling place on election day.

Political Ideology

Set of beliefs about government role and policies.

Liberalism

Supports government action to promote equality, social programs, change.

Conservatism

Favors tradition, limited government, free markets.

Keynesian Economics

Government spending stimulates economy during recessions.

Supply-Side Economics

Tax cuts for businesses and wealthy increase investment and growth.

Libertarian Ideology

Maximum personal liberty, minimum government in economy and social issues.

Fiscal Policy

Government taxing and spending.

Monetary Policy

Federal Reserve controls money supply and interest rates.

Social Policy

Government programs affecting welfare, health, education.

Linkage Institution

Connects citizens to government (parties, elections, interest groups, media).

Divided Government

One party controls White House, other controls Congress.

Political Party

Group that seeks to win elections and control government.

Party Platform

Official statement of party's positions on issues.

Policy Agenda

Set of issues leaders focus on.

Candidate-centered Campaigns

Campaigns focus on candidate's personality/image, not party.

Dealignment

Weakening of party loyalty; more independents.

Realignment

Major shift in party loyalty (usually after big event).