BOE ALL UNITS

Hindsight Bias

The tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that one would have foreseen it.

Operational Definition

A statement of the exact procedures used to define research variables.

Case Study

An in-depth analysis of an individual or group to reveal universal principles.

Naturalistic Observation

Observing and recording behavior in naturally occurring situations without trying to manipulate or control the situation.

Survey

A method for collecting self-reported attitudes or behaviors of people, usually by questioning a representative, random sample.

Experiment

A research method where an investigator manipulates one or more variables to observe the effect on behavior or mental processes.

Control Group

In an experiment, the group that is not exposed to the treatment and serves as a comparison.

Experimental Group

The group in an experiment that receives the variable being tested.

Population

All the cases in a group being studied, from which samples may be drawn.

Random Sample

A sample that fairly represents a population because each member has an equal chance of inclusion.

Representative Sample

A sample that accurately reflects the characteristics of the population as a whole.

Convenience Sample

A group chosen based on ease of access rather than randomness or representativeness.

Random Assignment

Assigning participants to experimental and control groups by chance, minimizing preexisting differences.

Double-Blind Procedure

An experimental procedure in which both the participants and research staff are blind to who received the treatment or placebo.

Placebo

A substance with no known medical effect used as a control in testing new drugs.

Independent Variable

The factor that is manipulated; the variable whose effect is being studied.

Dependent Variable

The outcome factor; the variable that may change in response to manipulations of the independent variable.

Statistical Significance

A statement of how likely it is that an obtained result occurred by chance.

Effect Size

A quantitative measure of the magnitude of a phenomenon.

Standard Deviation

A computed measure of how much scores vary around the mean score.

Quantitative Measures

Data that is measured and expressed numerically.

Qualitative Measures

Descriptive data, such as interview responses and observations.

Meta-Analysis

A statistical technique that combines the results of multiple studies to reach a conclusion.

Aggression

Any physical or verbal behavior intended to hurt or destroy.

Altruism

Unselfish regard for the welfare of others.

Bystander Effect

The tendency for any given bystander to be less likely to help if other people are present.

Social Loafing

The tendency for people in a group to exert less effort when pooling their efforts toward a common goal.

Reciprocity Norm

An expectation that people will help those who have helped them.

Conflict

A perceived incompatibility of actions, goals, or ideas.

Social Trap

A situation where conflicting parties become caught in mutually destructive behavior.

Ingroup vs. Outgroup Phenomenon

The tendency to favor one's own group and view others as different or inferior.

Out-group Homogeneity Bias

The perception that members of the outgroup are more similar to each other than they really are.

Fundamental Attribution Error

The tendency to overestimate the influence of personal traits and underestimate situational factors in others' behavior.

Diffusion of Responsibility

The phenomenon where individuals are less likely to help when others are present.

Deindividuation

The loss of self-awareness and self-restraint in group situations.

Social Responsibility Norm

An expectation that people will help those who depend on them.

Stanford Prison Experiment

A study revealing how quickly people adopt roles of power or submission in a simulated prison.

Groupthink

When the desire for harmony in a decision-making group overrides a realistic appraisal of alternatives.

Social Facilitation

Improved performance on simple or well-learned tasks in the presence of others.

Asch Experiment

Study showing that people will conform to group pressure even when the group is wrong.

Milgram Study

Obedience study where participants administered what they thought were painful shocks when instructed by authority.

Foot-in-the-door Technique

A persuasion strategy where a small request is followed by a larger one.

Obedience

Compliance with a direct order or command from an authority figure.

Conformity

Adjusting one’s behavior or thinking to match a group standard.

Neurons

Nerve cells; the basic building blocks of the nervous system.

Axon

The long fiber that carries neural impulses away from the neuron’s cell body.

Soma

The cell body of a neuron that contains the nucleus.

Dendrites

Branching extensions of a neuron that receive messages.

Action Potential

A brief electrical charge that travels down an axon; how neurons communicate.

Myelin Sheath

A fatty layer that insulates axons and speeds up neural impulses.

Reuptake

The process by which neurotransmitters are taken back into the synaptic vesicles.

Endorphins

Natural, opiate-like neurotransmitters linked to pain control and pleasure.

Endocrine System

A chemical communication system that secretes hormones into the bloodstream.

Pituitary Gland

The master gland of the endocrine system that regulates growth.

Glutamate

A major excitatory neurotransmitter involved in memory.

Dopamine

A neurotransmitter associated with movement, attention, and learning.

Acetylcholine (ACh)

A neurotransmitter involved in muscle action, learning, and memory.

Norepinephrine

A neurotransmitter involved in arousal and alertness.

GABA (Gamma-Aminobutyric Acid)

A major inhibitory neurotransmitter.

Serotonin

A neurotransmitter that affects mood, hunger, sleep, and arousal.

Cerebral Cortex

The outer layer of the brain responsible for higher-level thinking.

Corpus Callosum

A band of neural fibers connecting the two brain hemispheres.

Thalamus

The brain’s sensory control center that directs messages to sensory receiving areas.

Hypothalamus

A neural structure that directs maintenance activities and helps govern the endocrine system.

Reticular Formation

A nerve network in the brainstem controlling arousal and consciousness.

Medulla

The base of the brainstem that controls heartbeat and breathing.

Cerebellum

The 'little brain' that processes sensory input and coordinates movement.

Hippocampus

A neural center that helps process explicit memories.

Amygdala

Clusters in the limbic system linked to emotion, especially fear.

Central Nervous System (CNS)

Consists of the brain and spinal cord.

Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)

Connects the CNS to the rest of the body via nerves.

Sensation

The process by which our sensory receptors receive and represent stimulus energies.

Perception

The process of organizing and interpreting sensory information.

Bottom-Up Processing

Analysis that begins with the sensory receptors and works up to the brain's integration of sensory information.

Top-Down Processing

Information processing guided by higher-level mental processes.

Absolute Threshold

The minimum stimulation needed to detect a particular stimulus 50% of the time.

Just Noticeable Difference (Difference Threshold)

The minimum difference between two stimuli required for detection 50% of the time.

Signal Detection Theory

A theory predicting how and when we detect faint stimuli amid background noise.

Cocktail Party Effect

The ability to focus on one voice among a crowd.

Selective Attention

The focusing of conscious awareness on a particular stimulus.

Circadian Rhythm

The biological clock regulating bodily rhythms on a 24-hour cycle.

Sleep Apnea

A sleep disorder characterized by temporary cessations of breathing during sleep.

Night Terrors

A sleep disorder characterized by high arousal and terror during deep sleep.

Insomnia

Recurring problems in falling or staying asleep.

Narcolepsy

A sleep disorder characterized by uncontrollable sleep attacks.

Somnambulism

Sleepwalking that occurs during deep NREM-3 sleep.

Delta Waves

The large, slow brain waves associated with deep sleep.

Sleep Spindles

Bursts of rapid brain-wave activity during Stage 2 sleep.

Alpha Waves

The relatively slow brain waves of a relaxed, awake state.

REM Sleep

Rapid Eye Movement sleep; a stage during which vivid dreams commonly occur.

Information Processing Theory

A theory suggesting that dreams help us process the day’s events.

Physiological Functioning Theory

Proposes that REM sleep helps develop neural pathways.

Activation-Synthesis Theory

The theory that dreams are the brain’s attempt to synthesize random neural activity.

REM Rebound

The tendency for REM sleep to increase following deprivation.

Shaping

A procedure in operant conditioning where reinforcers guide behavior toward closer approximations of the desired behavior.

Partial/Intermittent Reinforcement

Reinforcing a response only part of the time.

Continuous Reinforcement

Reinforcing the desired response every time it occurs.

Positive Reinforcement

Increasing behaviors by presenting positive stimuli.

Negative Reinforcement

Increasing behaviors by removing negative stimuli.

Operant Conditioning

A type of learning where behavior is strengthened by reinforcement.