Biological Bases Unit Review

Heredity

The manner in which characteristics and traits are passed on from parents to their offsprings.

Nature

The biological/genetic predispositions that impact one's human traits — physical, emotional, and intellectual.

Nurture

All of the external or environmental factors that affect human development.

Genetic predisposition

To be susceptible to it or more likely to encounter it due to inherited genes.

Evolutionary perspective

The understanding that organisms are shaped by their evolutionary history and natural selection.

Charles Darwin

Naturalist known for the theory of evolution and the concept of natural selection.

Natural selection

Process by which biologically influenced characteristics become more or less common based on their impact on reproductive fitness.

Eugenics

Practice aiming to improve the human species through selective breeding, widely considered unethical due to its discriminatory nature.

Twin studies

Research that compares the similarities and differences between twins to understand the influence of genetics and environment.

Family studies

Research that examines the strengths of genetic and environmental influences on behavior among family members.

Adoption studies

Research comparing an adopted person’s behavior to that of their biological and adoptive parents.

Central nervous system (CNS)

Consists of the brain and spinal cord, coordinating action and interactions of the body’s systems.

Peripheral nervous system

Connects the CNS to the rest of the body, consisting of somatic and autonomic systems.

Autonomic nervous system

Controls involuntary functions and is divided into sympathetic and parasympathetic systems.

Sympathetic nervous system

Part of the autonomic nervous system responsible for the fight or flight response.

Parasympathetic nervous system

Part of the autonomic nervous system that returns the body to homeostasis.

Somatic nervous system

Controls voluntary movements of skeletal muscles.

Neurons

Cells that transmit and receive information in the nervous system.

Glial cells

Supportive cells in the nervous system that aid in structure, communication, and waste transport.

Reflex arc

Pathway formed by sensory neurons, interneurons, and motor neurons to facilitate reflex actions.

Sensory neurons

Neurons that carry signals from sensory receptors to the CNS.

Motor neurons

Neurons that carry signals from the CNS to muscles and glands.

Interneurons

Neurons that communicate internally within the brain and spinal cord.

Neural transmission

The transfer of information between neurons.

Action potential

A shift in electrical energy that triggers a nerve impulse.

All-or-nothing principle

The principle that a neuron either fires completely or not at all.

Depolarization

The process where a neuron becomes activated when positively charged ions enter.

Refractory period

The brief period after a neuron fires when it cannot fire again.

Resting potential

The unactivated state of a neuron at rest.

Reuptake

The process by which neurotransmitters are reabsorbed by the sending neuron.

Threshold

The level of intensity needed for a neuron to fire.

Multiple sclerosis

A disease where the myelin sheath degenerates, leading to muscle control loss.

Myasthenia gravis

An autoimmune disorder affecting the neuromuscular junction.

Excitatory neurotransmitters

Neurotransmitters that increase the likelihood of the firing of a neuron.

Inhibitory neurotransmitters

Neurotransmitters that decrease the likelihood of firing of a neuron.

Dopamine

A neurotransmitter involved in movement, learning, attention, and emotion.

Serotonin

A neurotransmitter that regulates mood, emotional state, and sleep-wake cycles.

Norepinephrine

A neurotransmitter that helps control alertness and arousal.

Glutamate

The major excitatory neurotransmitter involved in memory.

GABA

The major inhibitory neurotransmitter in the brain.

Endorphins

Natural opiate-like neurotransmitters linked to pain control and pleasure.

Substance P

A neurotransmitter involved in the modulation of pain.

Acetylcholine

A neurotransmitter that enables muscle action, learning, and memory.

Hormones

Chemical messengers manufactured by endocrine glands that affect tissues.

Adrenaline

A hormone that prepares the body for fight or flight responses.

Leptin

A hormone that acts as a hunger suppressant.

Ghrelin

A hormone that stimulates hunger.

Melatonin

A hormone that regulates sleep.

Oxytocin

A hormone associated with labor, lactation, and love.

Psychoactive drugs

Substances that alter mood, perception, or behavior.

Agonists

Substances that bind to receptors and mimic neurotransmitter effects.

Antagonists

Substances that block neurotransmitter function by binding to receptors.

Reuptake inhibitors

Drugs that prevent the reabsorption of neurotransmitters, enhancing their effects.

Stimulants

Drugs that increase neural activity.

Caffeine

A common stimulant that increases alertness.

Cocaine

A powerful stimulant derived from coca, producing increased alertness and euphoria.

Depressants

Drugs that decrease neural activity.

Alcohol

A depressant that affects the central nervous system.

Hallucinogens

Substances that cause distortions in perception and cognition.

Marijuana

A hallucinogen that enhances sensation, provides pain relief, and alters time perception.

Opioids

Substances that relieve pain and induce euphoria.

Heroin

An opioid known for its high potential for addiction.

Tolerance

A condition where diminishing effects occur with regular use of a drug.

Addiction

Compulsive substance craving and use despite significant life disruption or risks.

Withdrawal

Symptoms that occur when a drug user abruptly stops using the substance.

Brain stem

The oldest part of the brain responsible for automatic survival functions.

Medulla

The part of the brain stem that controls heartbeat and breathing.

Reticular activating system

A network of neurons in the brainstem that regulates arousal, consciousness, and attention.

Reward center

Located in the nucleus accumbens, associated with pleasure and reinforcement.

Cerebellum

The part of the brain responsible for processing sensory input, coordination, and balance.

Cerebral cortex

The intricate fabric of neural cells that covers the cerebral hemispheres.

Limbic system

The brain region involved in emotions and memory, containing structures like the amygdala and hippocampus.

Thalamus

The sensory control center of the brain, directing messages to sensory areas.

Hypothalamus

A neural structure controlling maintenance activities and regulating the endocrine system.

Pituitary gland

The most influential gland of the endocrine system, regulating growth and other hormones.

Hippocampus

A structure in the limbic system involved in processing conscious memories.

Amygdala

Neural clusters in the limbic system linked to emotions such as aggression and fear.

Corpus callosum

The large band of neural fibers connecting the brain's two hemispheres.

Occipital lobes

Regions of the cerebral cortex responsible for visual processing.

Temporal lobes

Areas of the cerebral cortex involved in auditory processing and memory.

Parietal lobes

Regions of the cerebral cortex that receive sensory input for touch and body position.

Association areas

Cerebral cortex areas involved in higher mental functions like learning and thinking.

Somatosensory cortex

Area processing sensory input related to touch and movement.

Frontal lobes

Regions of the cerebral cortex involved in planning, speech, and muscle movements.

Linguistic processing

The cognitive process related to understanding and producing language.

Wernicke’s area

Brain area involved in comprehension of language.

Higher-order thinking

Complex cognitive processes requiring manipulation and analysis.

Executive functioning

Cognitive skills required for planning and completing tasks.

Prefrontal cortex

Part of the frontal lobes associated with judgment and memory processing.

Motor cortex

Area that controls voluntary movements of the body.

Split brain research

Studies examining the functions of the brain's hemispheres when they cannot communicate.

Hemispheric specialization

The concept that each hemisphere of the brain has specialized functions.

Broca’s area

An area in the frontal lobe involved in speech production.

Aphasia (Broca’s and Wernicke’s)

Language deficits that affect communication abilities.

Contralateral hemispheric organization

Each hemisphere controlling the opposite side of the body.

Plasticity

The brain's ability to change and reorganize itself, especially after damage.

EEG

A method for measuring electrical activity in the brain.

fMRI

A technique that measures brain activity by detecting changes associated with blood flow.

Lesioning

Damaging a part of the brain to study its effects.

Consciousness

Awareness of oneself and one's environment.