psych 3.7-3.9

Learning

A relatively permanent change in behavior or knowledge resulting from experience.

Habituation

A decrease in response to a repeated stimulus over time.

Associative Learning

Learning that occurs when two events are linked together, such as in classical or operant conditioning.

Stimulus

Any event or object in the environment that elicits a response.

Respondent Behavior

Behavior that occurs automatically in response to a stimulus, as in classical conditioning.

Operant Behavior

Behavior that operates on the environment to produce consequences, as in operant conditioning.

Cognitive Learning

Learning that involves understanding, knowledge, or mental processes, rather than just changes in behavior.

Classical Conditioning

A type of learning in which a neutral stimulus comes to elicit a response after being paired with a stimulus that naturally triggers that response.

Behaviorism

A psychological perspective that focuses on observable behavior and its relationship to environmental stimuli.

John Watson

Psychologist who founded behaviorism and demonstrated classical conditioning in humans with the Little Albert experiment.

Ivan Pavlov

Psychologist who studied classical conditioning with dogs, showing how a neutral stimulus can elicit a conditioned response.

Neutral Stimulus (NS)

A stimulus that initially does not trigger a response but can become a conditioned stimulus through association.

Unconditioned Response (UR)

A natural, automatic reaction to an unconditioned stimulus.

Unconditioned Stimulus (US)

A stimulus that naturally and automatically triggers a response without prior learning.

Conditioned Response (CR)

A learned response to a previously neutral stimulus.

Conditioned Stimulus (CS)

A formerly neutral stimulus that, after association with an unconditioned stimulus, triggers a conditioned response.

Acquisition

The initial stage of learning in which a conditioned response is first established.

Higher-Order Conditioning (Second-Order Conditioning)

When a conditioned stimulus is paired with a new neutral stimulus, creating a second conditioned stimulus.

Extinction

The weakening and eventual disappearance of a conditioned response when the conditioned stimulus is no longer paired with the unconditioned stimulus.

Spontaneous Recovery

The sudden reappearance of an extinguished conditioned response after a rest period.

Generalization

Responding similarly to stimuli that resemble the conditioned stimulus.

Discrimination

The ability to distinguish between different stimuli and respond only to the conditioned stimulus.

Little Albert Experiment

John Watson's study demonstrating classical conditioning of fear by pairing a white rat with a loud noise.

Preparedness

The biological predisposition to learn certain associations more easily than others.

John Garcia

Psychologist who showed that organisms are biologically predisposed to develop certain conditioned associations, such as taste aversions.

Taste Aversion

A learned avoidance of a food or drink that was associated with illness or discomfort.

Operant Conditioning

Learning in which behavior is influenced by its consequences, such as reinforcement or punishment.

Law of Effect

Edward Thorndike’s principle that behaviors followed by favorable consequences are more likely to recur.

Operant Chamber (Skinner Box)

A controlled environment used to study operant conditioning, typically involving a lever or key that delivers reinforcement.

Reinforcement

Any consequence that strengthens a behavior, increasing the likelihood it will occur again.

Shaping

Gradually guiding behavior toward a desired outcome by reinforcing successive approximations.

Discriminative Stimulus

A stimulus that signals that a particular behavior will be reinforced.

Positive Reinforcement

Increasing a behavior by presenting a rewarding stimulus.

Negative Reinforcement

Increasing a behavior by removing an aversive stimulus.

Primary Reinforcers

Stimuli that are naturally reinforcing because they satisfy basic biological needs (e.g., food, water).

Conditioned (Secondary) Reinforcers

Stimuli that acquire reinforcing power through association with primary reinforcers (e.g., money, grades).

Reinforcement Schedules

Patterns that determine how and when a behavior is reinforced.

Continuous Reinforcement

Providing reinforcement after every correct response.

Partial (Intermittent) Reinforcement

Reinforcement is delivered only some of the time, making behavior more resistant to extinction.

Fixed-Ratio Schedule

Reinforcement occurs after a set number of responses.

Variable-Ratio Schedule

Reinforcement occurs after an unpredictable number of responses.

Fixed-Interval Schedule

Reinforcement occurs after a set amount of time.

Variable-Interval Schedule

Reinforcement occurs after unpredictable time intervals.

Punishment

A consequence that decreases the likelihood of a behavior recurring.

Positive Punishment

Adding an aversive stimulus to decrease a behavior.

Negative Punishment

Removing a desirable stimulus to decrease a behavior.

Response Cost

A form of negative punishment where a specific amount of reinforcement is removed following undesirable behavior.

Token Economies

Systems in which tokens (secondary reinforcers) are earned for desired behaviors and exchanged for rewards.

B.F. Skinner

Psychologist who advanced operant conditioning research and developed the operant chamber.

Biofeedback

A technique that uses monitoring devices to provide feedback about physiological states, helping individuals gain voluntary control over them.

Instinctive Drift

The tendency of conditioned animals to revert to innate behaviors that interfere with learned responses.

Cognitive Map

A mental representation of the layout of an environment.

Latent Learning

Learning that occurs without immediate demonstration but is evident when a reinforcement is provided.

Insight Learning

Sudden realization of a solution to a problem without trial-and-error learning.

Intrinsic Motivation

Engaging in behavior because it is personally rewarding.

Extrinsic Motivation

Engaging in behavior to receive external rewards or avoid punishment.

Problem-Focused Coping

Addressing stress by tackling the problem directly to reduce or eliminate it.

Emotion-Focused Coping

Managing emotional responses to stress rather than changing the stressor itself.

Learned Helplessness

Passive behavior that results from repeated exposure to uncontrollable events.

Overjustification Effect

When external rewards decrease intrinsic motivation for a behavior that was already enjoyable.

External Locus of Control

Belief that outcomes are determined by outside forces rather than personal effort.

Internal Locus of Control

Belief that outcomes result largely from one’s own efforts.

Self-Control

The ability to regulate impulses, emotions, and behaviors to achieve long-term goals.

Albert Bandura

Psychologist who studied observational learning and developed social cognitive theory.

Bobo Doll Experiment

Demonstrated that children imitate aggressive behaviors modeled by adults, highlighting observational learning.

Observational Learning

Learning by watching and imitating others’ behavior.

Modeling

Demonstrating behavior that others can observe and imitate.

Mirror Neurons

Neurons that fire when performing an action or when observing someone else perform the same action.

Prosocial Behavior

Positive, constructive behaviors intended to benefit others.

Antisocial Behavior

Actions that are harmful, destructive, or violate social norms.

Vicarious Reinforcement

Observing someone else receive reinforcement, which increases the likelihood of imitating that behavior.

Vicarious Punishment

Observing someone else receive a punishment, which decreases the likelihood of imitating that behavior.