Studied by 110 people
introspection
A method in which participants are asked to reflect on their own cognitive process, it relies primarily on non observable responses and although participants can report conscious experiences, they are unable to comment on unconscious factors in relation to their behaviour. Reflect on sensations, images and feelings.
structuralism
Introspection led to identifying the structure of consciousness by breaking it up into the basic structures; thoughts, images and sensations
Superego
the component of personality composed of the internalised ideals that we have acquired from our parents and society
Ego
your conscious mind, the part of yourself that you consider your “self” and is in contact with the external world through perception
Inference
the process of drawing conclusions about general patterns of behaviour from specific observations
Contrived
having an unnatural or false appearance or quality
paradigm
shared set of assumptions about a subject
paradigm shift
process of until a scientific revolution occurs (too much contradictory evidence)
Falsifiable
possibility that a hypothesis could be false- via testing
Objective
measurement not affected by expectations of researcher
Replicable
accurate recording of procedures to allow replication
Empirical
using observation/testing to gain knowledge
Subjective data
Data is varied greatly from person to person, very difficult to establish general principles
the conscious
involves conscious awareness
the pre-conscious
involves anything that could be brought into the conscious mind
the sub-conscious
things outside of our awarness that are unacceptable or unpleasant
The ID (the pleasure principle)
present at birth, this is instincts and basic drives towards sex and aggression
The superego (the morality principle)
develops after socialisation and is our conscience and moral standards
The ego (the reality principle)
acts as a ‘referee’ to resolve conflict between the id and the superego. When a balance can’t be achieved, abnormal behaviour results
face validity
something on the surface that looks like it might be true
iblido
sexual drive or desire for sexual activity
Oedpius complex
little boys have to live through fears of castration by their fathers, punishment desiring and seeking possession of their mothers. Little girls were infatuated by their fathers but had to deal with complex feeling of inferiority because they didn't have a penis ‘penis envy
Oral stage (0-1 year)
The primary source of pleasure is the mouth and sucking
Fixation: smoking and overeating
Anal stage (1-3 years)
The primary source of pleasure involves the membranes of the anal regions
Toilet training is a major demand
Ego starts to develop- children become aware of the demands others are placing on them
Fixation: being overly messy or fastidious
Phallic stage (3-6 years)
The primary source of pleasure involves the genitals
Major conflict- Oedpius complex- develop castration anxiety
Development of the super-ego due to identification with the parents and internalisation of their morals standards (to resolve anxiety)
Fixation: masturbation
Latency stage (6-12 years)
The development of other activities means less concentration on sexual area
Previous conflicts repressed, resulting in little being recalled from childhood
Genital stage (puberty onwards)
Previous stages worked through, the primary source of pleasure is now through the pursuit of heterosexual relationships
Fixation and conflict may prevent this with the consequence and sexual perversions may drop
E.g. fixation at the oral stage may result in a person gathering sexual pleasure primarily from kissing and oral sex, rather than sexual intercourse
Repression
A defence mechanism used by the Ego where traumatic memories are forced into the unconscious (so they can no longer cause pain or guilt)
Still ‘break through’ behaviour
It is not a choice, unconscious decisions
Denial
Deny an event so it cannot cause anxiety
E.g. a drug addict may claim they are in control of their problem and are not addicted
Displacement
The redirection of an emotion at an ‘easier’ target
This is an unconscious decision
Idiographic
psychologist who focus on the individuals and emphasises the unique personal experience of human nature
Nomothetic
psychologist who are concerned with establishing general law, based on the study of large groups of people
Gender bias
the differential treatment and/or representation of males and females. Based on stereotypes and not real differences
Androcentrism
theories which are centred on/or focused on males
Gynocentrism
theories which are centred on/or focused on females
Alpha bias
refers to theories which exaggerate the differences between males and females
Beta bias
refers to theories which ignore or minimise sex differences. These theories often assume that the findings from males can equally apply to females
Hard determinism
the view that forces outside of control (e.g. biology or past experiences) shape our behaviour. Hard determinism is seen as incompatible with free will
Soft determinism
the view that behaviour is constrained by the environment or biological make-up, but only to a certain extent and that there is an element of free will in behaviour
Biological determinism
refers to the idea that all human behaviour is innate and determined by genes
Environmental determinism
the view that behaviour is caused by forces outside the individual. Therefore, behaviour is caused by previous experiences learned through classical and operant conditioning
Psychic determinism
claims that human behaviour is the result of childhood experiences and innate drives (ID, ego, superego), as in Freud's model of psychological development
Free will
the idea that we can play an active role and have choice in how we behave. The assumptions that individuals are free to choose their behaviour and are self determined
maladaptive
not beneficial
adaptive
beneficial
AO3 EVALUATION: Psychodynamic approach
Androcentric
Idiographic as Freud developed his conclusions from small, individual case studies
Real world application
classical conditioning
is learning through association
stimulus
anything that exists in the surroundings
Response
response/reactions to that stimulus
Reductionism vs Holism
Reductionism= breaking down human explanations of human behaviour into constituent parts
Holism= phenomena is best understood by looking at the whole picture
Nature vs nurture
Nature= behaviour is influenced by inherited biological factors
Nurture= behaviour is influenced by environment and experience
Free Will vs determinism:
Free will=each individual is able to choose his/her own behaviour within the constraints of internal and external factors that may influence us
Determinism= behaviour is outside of the individual’s control
Neutral Stimulus (NS)
an event that does not produce a response
Unconditioned stimulus (UCS)
An event that produces an innate, unlearned reflex response
Unconditioned response (UCR)
an innate , unlearned reflex behaviour that is produced when exposed to an unconditioned stimulus
Conditioned stimulus (CS)
an event that produces a learned response
Conditioned response (CR)
a learned behaviour that is produced when exposed to a conditioned stimulus
Operant conditioning
a form of learning in which behaviour is shaped and maintained by its consequences. This includes positive reinforcement, negative reinforcement, and punishment. Developed by Skinner.
Reinforcement
makes a behaviour MORE likely to occur
Punishment
makes a behaviour LESS likely to occur
Positive
something is ADDED to the environment
Negative
something is REMOVED from the environment
Systematic desensitisation
is a therapy based on classical conditioning that is used to treat phobias.
What did Bandura argue?
he argued that classical conditioning and operant conditioning couldn’t account for all human learning; there are important mental processes that mediate between stimulus and response
Social learning theory
A way of explaining behaviour that includes both direct and indirect reinforcement, combining learning theory with the role of cognitive factors
Modelling
From an observers perspective, modelling is imitating the behaviour of a role model. From the role models perspective, modelling is the precise behaviour that may then be imitated by an observer
Imitation
copying the behaviour of others
Identification
A desire to be associated with a particular person or group often because the person/group possesses certain desirable characteristics
Vicarious reinforcement
Reinforcement which is not directly experienced but occurs through observing someone else being reinforced for behaviour. This is a key factor in imitation
Meditational processes
Mental (cognitive) factors that intervene in the learning process to determine whether a new behaviour is acquired or not. (A.R.R.M)
A.R.R.M
Attention- whether we notice the behaviour
Retention- whether we remember the behaviour long term
Reproduction- whether we are able to physically perform the behaviour
Motivation- whether the perceived rewards outweigh the perceived costs
Bandura bobo doll experiment
Adults displayed aggressive behaviour towards a BOBO doll in an attempt to see if children would imitate their model behaviour. When the children were later observed playing with the doll and other toys, they behaved more aggressively towards the doll than those who had observed non-aggressive adults/model behaviour
Evaluation of social learning theory
real life application
Research is laboratory based
Determinism
Reductionism
Nature vs nurture
Cognitive factors
The humanistic approach
emphasises the importance of subjective experience, free will and each person's capacity for self-determination
This approach represents a challenge to the psychodynamic and behaviourist approaches
Basic principles
All humans are basically good and valued
We have free will to become who we want
We have responsibility for our own behaviour
Feelings are important, as is their subjectivity
Reality itself is subjective
We all choose to grow
We are not just animals
The concept of free will
Focuses on subjective experience
A unique person-centred approach
This is the notion that humans can make choices and are not determined by biological or external forces
This does not mean that people are not affected by external or internal influences but we are active agents who have the ability to determine our own development
Maslow’s hierarchy of needs
Self actualisation is an innate tendency to want to achieve our full potential and become the best we can be
Fundamental to human nature is the desire to grow and develop to achieve our full potential - referred to as ‘self-actualisation’.
Maslow’s hierarchy of needs ranges from basic needs to higher level psychological and actualisation needs.
All four levels of the hierarchy must be met before an individual can work towards self actualisation
Maslow’s theory emphasises uniquely human motivational factors - higher level needs are a later evolutionary
Self actualisation
an innate tendency to want to achieve our full potential and become the best we can be
Focus on the self
The self refers to the ideas that values that characterise ‘I’ and ‘me’ and includes our perception of ‘what I am’ and ‘what I can do’
Roger’s aims of therapy is to establish congruence
An individual's concept of self needs to become congruent with their ideal self. A big gap here leads to a state of incongruence
Congruence- if there is similarity, between a person's ideal self and self image, a state of congruence exists. A difference represents a state of incongruence
A healthy sense of wellbeing is established if an individual maintains a reasonable consistency between ideal self and actual behaviour. This is known as congruence.
The greater the gap between the ideal self and the actual self, the greater the incongruence.
Incongruence can lead to low self-worth and maladjustment.
Defence mechanisms (distortion, denial, blocking) can stop the self from growing and changing, and widen the gulf between our ideal self and true self.
Parents who impose conditions of worth may prevent personal growth
Feelings of worthlessness and low self esteem can be due to lack of unconditional positive regard from parents
Conditions of worth- conditions imposed by an individuals behaviour and development that are considered necessary to earn positive regard from significant others
If a child is given conditional positive regard they then might grow up with conditions of worth. (I.e ‘I must be xyz otherwise I am worthless’.)This contributes to their self-worth, which combines with their self image and ideal self to make up their self concept.
Having conditions of worth can create incongruence which can lead to psychological issues, eg depression and anxiety.
In Client centred therapy, the therapist sees the client with unconditional positive regard, which helps them to evaluate their self worth and self image and ideal self and so become more congruent.
The humanistic approach has a lasting influence on counselling psychology
Roger’s client centred therapy:
The humanistic approach’s primary application has been to therapeutic treatment.
Client-centred therapy (CCT), whereby the client is encouraged to develop positive self-regard and overcome the mismatch between their perceived self, true self and ideal self
Gestalt therapy - the aim is to help the client become a ‘whole’ (gestalt) person by getting them to accept every aspect of themselves.Techniques of gestalt therapy include confrontation, dream analysis, and role playing.
Self concept
refers to how we perceive yourself as a person which has three elements leading to congruence/incongruence
Self-worth
What we think & feel about ourselves. Rogers believed feelings of self-worth developed in early childhood and were formed from the interaction of the child with the mother and father.
Self-image
How we see ourselves, which is important to good psychological health. Self-image includes the influence of our body image on inner personality. At a simple level, we might perceive ourselves as a good or bad person, beautiful or ugly. Self-image has an effect on how a person thinks, feels and behaves in the world
Ideal self
This is the person who we would like to be. It consists of our goals and ambitions in life, and is dynamic – i.e. forever changing. The ideal self in childhood is not the ideal self in our teens or late twenties etc
Congruence
A healthy sense of wellbeing is established if an individual maintains a reasonable consistency between ideal self and actual behaviour
Incongurence
A person’s self-concept may not be consistent with what actually happens in life and experiences of the person. Hence, a difference may exist between a person’s ideal self and actual experience. This is called incongruence
Humanist assumptions
Humans have a basic need to feel nurtured and valued by significant people in their lives, such as parents (love, praise and acceptance).
If this is given freely, without conditions (unconditional positive regard), then people will develop a healthy sense of self-worth, recognising their abilities and difficulties.
Children who receive negative regard, such as criticism and blame, develop low self-esteem.
To avoid this, the parent’s should blame the behaviour, not the child
Strengths of the humanistic approach
It emphasises choice (free will and responsibility) – largely ignored by the other approaches
It considers subjective conscious experience
It values personal ideals and self-fulfilment
It has enabled psychologists to explore human existence with more sensitivity than the more scientific methods
It has contributed to psychological theories and has been shown to be effective in the treatment of some disorders such as depression and stress
Weaknesses of the humanistic approach
This approach has less impact on mainstream psychology than the other approaches
The use of qualitative techniques has been questioned
As the subject matter is individual experience it is not possible to formulate general laws of behaviour and as such is not a comprehensive theory but rather a loose set of abstract ideas.
Due to the vagueness of such terms as ‘self-actualisation’ and fully-functioning person’, little empirical research has been carried out – untestable concepts
Not all cultures share the assumption that individual achievement brings fulfilment
Cognitive approach
argues that internal mental processes can, and should, be studied scientifically. Areas such as memory, perception and thinking can be studied indirectly by making inferences about what processes are happening inside people's minds.
Assumptions of the cognitive approach
The cognitive approach was developed as a reaction against the behaviourist stimulus-response approach.
For cognitive psychologists, it is the events within a person that must be studied if behaviour is to be fully understood.
Unlike behaviourists, cognitive psychologists believe that it is possible to study internal mental processes in an objective way and that insight into mental processes may be inferred from behaviour.
The cognitive approach is concerned with how thinking shapes our behaviour.
Internal mental processes
Humans are basically seen as information processors. The main concern of cognitive psychology is how information received from our senses is processed by the brain and how this processing directs how we behave.
The mental processes studied by cognitive psychologists: perception, attention, memory, language, thinking, problem solving
Inference
the act of drawing a conclusion from evidence and reasoning. This means that we use clues from observable behaviour, speech etc, to build an explanation of what is really going on in people's unobservable minds. This needs to be informed by a theoretical model that can make sense and combine many different pieces of evidence into a coherent explanation
Theoretical models
The information processing approach suggests information flows through a sequence of stages that involve input, storage and retrieval.
Multi-store model of memory diagram
Computer models
Where the mind is compared to a computer by suggesting there are similarities in the way information is processed. Computer analogy: there are similarities between the brain (central processing unit), coding (turning information into a usable format) and the use of ‘stores’. They infer mental processes from comparisons between the information (input) a person receives and the behaviour (output) they produce
Advantages of theoretical models
Enhance understanding of internal processes
Disadvantages of theoretical models
Can be difficult to test experimentally
Models views are oversimplified
Advantages of computer models
Assumptions can be precise
Influential (eg. problem solver suggesting humans use simple rules of thumb when solving problems)
Can help us understand unobservable processes
Note 
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