approaches to psychology- paper 2

paper 2

introspection

A method in which participants are asked to reflect on their own cognitive process, it relies primarily on non observable responses and although participants can report conscious experiences, they are unable to comment on unconscious factors in relation to their behaviour. Reflect on sensations, images and feelings.

structuralism

Introspection led to identifying the structure of consciousness by breaking it up into the basic structures; thoughts, images and sensations

Superego

the component of personality composed of the internalised ideals that we have acquired from our parents and society

Ego

your conscious mind, the part of yourself that you consider your “self” and is in contact with the external world through perception

Inference

the process of drawing conclusions about general patterns of behaviour from specific observations

Contrived

having an unnatural or false appearance or quality

paradigm

shared set of assumptions about a subject

paradigm shift

process of until a scientific revolution occurs (too much contradictory evidence)

Falsifiable

possibility that a hypothesis could be false- via testing

Objective

measurement not affected by expectations of researcher

Replicable

accurate recording of procedures to allow replication

Empirical

using observation/testing to gain knowledge

Subjective data

Data is varied greatly from person to person, very difficult to establish general principles

the conscious

involves conscious awareness

the pre-conscious

involves anything that could be brought into the conscious mind

the sub-conscious

things outside of our awarness that are unacceptable or unpleasant

The ID (the pleasure principle)

present at birth, this is instincts and basic drives towards sex and aggression 

The superego (the morality principle)

develops after socialisation and is our conscience and moral standards 

The ego (the reality principle)

acts as a ‘referee’ to resolve conflict between the id and the superego. When a balance can’t be achieved, abnormal behaviour results

face validity

something on the surface that looks like it might be true

iblido

sexual drive or desire for sexual activity

Oedpius complex

little boys have to live through fears of castration by their fathers, punishment desiring and seeking possession of their mothers. Little girls were infatuated by their fathers but had to deal with complex feeling of inferiority because they didn't have a penis ‘penis envy

Oral stage (0-1 year)

The primary source of pleasure is the mouth and sucking 

Fixation: smoking and overeating

Anal stage (1-3 years)

The primary source of pleasure involves the membranes of the anal regions 

Toilet training is a major demand 

Ego starts to develop- children become aware of the demands others are placing on them 

Fixation: being overly messy or fastidious

Phallic stage (3-6 years)

The primary source of pleasure involves the genitals 

Major conflict- Oedpius complex- develop castration anxiety

Development of the super-ego due to identification with the parents and internalisation of their morals standards (to resolve anxiety) 

Fixation: masturbation

Latency stage (6-12 years)

The development of other activities means less concentration on sexual area 

Previous conflicts repressed, resulting in little being recalled from childhood

Genital stage (puberty onwards)

Previous stages worked through, the primary source of pleasure is now through the pursuit of heterosexual relationships 

Fixation and conflict may prevent this with the consequence and sexual perversions may drop 

E.g. fixation at the oral stage may result in a person gathering sexual pleasure primarily from kissing and oral sex, rather than sexual intercourse

Repression

• A defence mechanism used by the Ego where traumatic memories are forced into the unconscious (so they can no longer cause pain or guilt) 

• Still ‘break through’ behaviour 

• It is not a choice, unconscious decisions

Denial

• Deny an event so it cannot cause anxiety 

• E.g. a drug addict may claim they are in control of their problem and are not addicted

Displacement

• The redirection of an emotion at an ‘easier’ target

• This is an unconscious decision

Idiographic

psychologist who focus on the individuals and emphasises the unique personal experience of human nature

Nomothetic

psychologist who are concerned with establishing general law, based on the study of large groups of people 

Gender bias

the differential treatment and/or representation of males and females. Based on stereotypes and not real differences 

Androcentrism

theories which are centred on/or focused on males 

Gynocentrism

theories which are centred on/or focused on females 

Alpha bias

refers to theories which exaggerate the differences between males and females

Beta bias

refers to theories which ignore or minimise sex differences. These theories often assume that the findings from males can equally apply to females 

Hard determinism

the view that forces outside of control (e.g. biology or past experiences) shape our behaviour. Hard determinism is seen as incompatible with free will 

Soft determinism

the view that behaviour is constrained by the environment or biological make-up, but only to a certain extent and that there is an element of free will in behaviour 

Biological determinism

refers to the idea that all human behaviour is innate and determined by genes 

Environmental determinism

the view that behaviour is caused by forces outside the individual. Therefore, behaviour is caused by previous experiences learned through classical and operant conditioning 

Psychic determinism

claims that human behaviour is the result of childhood experiences and innate drives (ID, ego, superego), as in Freud's model of psychological development 

Free will

the idea that we can play an active role and have choice in how we behave. The assumptions that individuals are free to choose their behaviour and are self determined 

maladaptive

not beneficial

adaptive

beneficial

AO3 EVALUATION: Psychodynamic approach

• Androcentric

• Idiographic as Freud developed his conclusions from small, individual case studies

• Real world application

classical conditioning

is learning through association

stimulus

anything that exists in the surroundings

Response

response/reactions to that stimulus

Reductionism vs Holism

Reductionism= breaking down human explanations of human behaviour into constituent parts

Holism= phenomena is best understood by looking at the whole picture

Nature vs nurture

Nature= behaviour is influenced by inherited biological factors

Nurture= behaviour is influenced by environment and experience

Free Will vs determinism:

Free will=each individual is able to choose his/her own behaviour within the constraints of internal and external factors that may influence us

Determinism= behaviour is outside of the individual’s control

Neutral Stimulus (NS)

an event that does not produce a response 

Unconditioned stimulus (UCS)

An event that produces an innate, unlearned reflex response

Unconditioned response (UCR)

an innate , unlearned reflex behaviour that is produced when exposed to an unconditioned stimulus

Conditioned stimulus (CS)

an event that produces a learned response

Conditioned response (CR)

a learned behaviour that is produced when exposed to a conditioned stimulus

Operant conditioning

a form of learning in which behaviour is shaped and maintained by its consequences. This includes positive reinforcement, negative reinforcement, and punishment. Developed by Skinner. 

Reinforcement

makes a behaviour MORE likely to occur

Punishment

makes a behaviour LESS likely to occur

Positive

something is ADDED to the environment

Negative

something is REMOVED from the environment

Systematic desensitisation

is a therapy based on classical conditioning that is used to treat phobias. 

What did Bandura argue?

he argued that classical conditioning and operant conditioning couldn’t account for all human learning; there are important mental processes that mediate between stimulus and response

Social learning theory

A way of explaining behaviour that includes both direct and indirect reinforcement, combining learning theory with the role of cognitive factors

Modelling

From an observers perspective, modelling is imitating the behaviour of a role model. From the role models perspective, modelling is the precise behaviour that may then be imitated by an observer

Imitation

copying the behaviour of others

Identification

A desire to be associated with a particular person or group often because the person/group possesses certain desirable characteristics

Vicarious reinforcement

Reinforcement which is not directly experienced but occurs through observing someone else being reinforced for behaviour. This is a key factor in imitation

Meditational processes

Mental (cognitive) factors that intervene in the learning process to determine whether a new behaviour is acquired or not. (A.R.R.M)

A.R.R.M

Attention- whether we notice the behaviour

Retention- whether we remember the behaviour long term

Reproduction- whether we are able to physically perform the behaviour

Motivation- whether the perceived rewards outweigh the perceived costs

Bandura bobo doll experiment

Adults displayed aggressive behaviour towards a BOBO doll in an attempt to see if children would imitate their model behaviour. When the children were later observed playing with the doll and other toys, they behaved more aggressively towards the doll than those who had observed non-aggressive adults/model behaviour

Evaluation of social learning theory

1. real life application

2. Research is laboratory based

3. Determinism

4. Reductionism

5. Nature vs nurture

6. Cognitive factors

The humanistic approach

emphasises the importance of subjective experience, free will and each person's capacity for self-determination 

This approach represents a challenge to the psychodynamic and behaviourist approaches

Basic principles

• All humans are basically good and valued

• We have free will to become who we want

• We have responsibility for our own behaviour

• Feelings are important, as is their subjectivity

• Reality itself is subjective

• We all choose to grow

• We are not just animals

The concept of free will

• Focuses on subjective experience 

• A unique person-centred approach 

• This is the notion that humans can make choices and are not determined by biological or external forces

• This does not mean that people are not affected by external or internal influences but we are active agents who have the ability to determine our own development

Maslow’s hierarchy of needs

• Self actualisation is an innate tendency to want to achieve our full potential and become the best we can be 

• Fundamental to human nature is the desire to grow and develop to achieve our full potential - referred to as ‘self-actualisation’.

• Maslow’s hierarchy of needs ranges from basic needs to higher level psychological and actualisation needs.

• All four levels of the hierarchy must be met before an individual can work towards self actualisation

• Maslow’s theory emphasises uniquely human motivational factors - higher level needs are a later evolutionary

Self actualisation

an innate tendency to want to achieve our full potential and become the best we can be 

Focus on the self

The self refers to the ideas that values that characterise ‘I’ and ‘me’ and includes our perception of ‘what I am’ and ‘what I can do’

Roger’s aims of therapy is to establish congruence

An individual's concept of self needs to become congruent with their ideal self. A big gap here leads to a state of incongruence 

Congruence- if there is similarity, between a person's ideal self and self image, a state of congruence exists. A difference represents a state of incongruence 

• A healthy sense of wellbeing is established if an individual maintains a reasonable consistency between ideal self and actual behaviour. This is known as congruence.

• The greater the gap between the ideal self and the actual self, the greater the incongruence.

• Incongruence can lead to low self-worth and maladjustment.

• Defence mechanisms (distortion, denial, blocking) can stop the self from growing and changing, and widen the gulf between our ideal self and true self.

Parents who impose conditions of worth may prevent personal growth

Feelings of worthlessness and low self esteem can be due to lack of unconditional positive regard from parents 

Conditions of worth- conditions imposed by an individuals behaviour and development that are considered necessary to earn positive regard from significant others 

• If a child is given conditional positive regard they then might grow up with conditions of worth. (I.e ‘I must be xyz otherwise I am worthless’.)This contributes to their self-worth, which combines with their self image and ideal self to make up their self concept.

• Having conditions of worth can create incongruence which can lead to psychological issues, eg depression and anxiety.

• In Client centred therapy, the therapist sees the client with unconditional positive regard, which helps them to evaluate their self worth and self image and ideal self and so become more congruent.

The humanistic approach has a lasting influence on counselling psychology

Roger’s client centred therapy:

• The humanistic approach’s primary application has been to therapeutic treatment.

• Client-centred therapy (CCT), whereby the client is encouraged to develop positive self-regard and overcome the mismatch between their perceived self, true self and ideal self

• Gestalt therapy - the aim is to help the client become a ‘whole’ (gestalt) person by getting them to accept every aspect of themselves.Techniques of gestalt therapy include confrontation, dream analysis, and role playing.

Self concept

refers to how we perceive yourself as a person which has three elements leading to congruence/incongruence

Self-worth

What we think & feel about ourselves. Rogers believed feelings of self-worth developed in early childhood and were formed from the interaction of the child with the mother and father.

Self-image

How we see ourselves, which is important to good psychological health. Self-image includes the influence of our body image on inner personality. At a simple level, we might perceive ourselves as a good or bad person, beautiful or ugly. Self-image has an effect on how a person thinks, feels and behaves in the world

Ideal self

This is the person who we would like to be. It consists of our goals and ambitions in life, and is dynamic – i.e. forever changing. The ideal self in childhood is not the ideal self in our teens or late twenties etc

Congruence

A healthy sense of wellbeing is established if an individual maintains a reasonable consistency between ideal self and actual behaviour

Incongurence

A person’s self-concept may not be consistent with what actually happens in life and experiences of the person. Hence, a difference may exist between a person’s ideal self and actual experience. This is called incongruence

Humanist assumptions

• Humans have a basic need to feel nurtured and valued by significant people in their lives, such as parents (love, praise and acceptance).

• If this is given freely, without conditions (unconditional positive regard), then people will develop a healthy sense of self-worth, recognising their abilities and difficulties.

• Children who receive negative regard, such as criticism and blame, develop low self-esteem.

• To avoid this, the parent’s should blame the behaviour, not the child

Strengths of the humanistic approach

• It emphasises choice (free will and responsibility) – largely ignored by the other approaches

• It considers subjective conscious experience

• It values personal ideals and self-fulfilment

• It has enabled psychologists to explore human existence with more sensitivity than the more scientific methods

• It has contributed to psychological theories and has been shown to be effective in the treatment of some disorders such as depression and stress

Weaknesses of the humanistic approach

• This approach has less impact on mainstream psychology than the other approaches

• The use of qualitative techniques has been questioned

• As the subject matter is individual experience it is not possible to formulate general laws of behaviour and as such is not a comprehensive theory but rather a loose set of abstract ideas.

• Due to the vagueness of such terms as ‘self-actualisation’ and fully-functioning person’, little empirical research has been carried out – untestable concepts

• Not all cultures share the assumption that individual achievement brings fulfilment

Cognitive approach

argues that internal mental processes can, and should, be studied scientifically. Areas such as memory, perception and thinking can be studied indirectly by making inferences about what processes are happening inside people's minds.

Assumptions of the cognitive approach

• The cognitive approach was developed as a reaction against the behaviourist stimulus-response approach. 

• For cognitive psychologists, it is the events within a person that must be studied if behaviour is to be fully understood.

• Unlike behaviourists, cognitive psychologists believe that it is possible to study internal mental processes in an objective way and that insight into mental processes may be inferred from behaviour.

• The cognitive approach is concerned with how thinking shapes our behaviour.

Internal mental processes

• Humans are basically seen as information processors. The main concern of cognitive psychology is how information received from our senses is processed by the brain and how this processing directs how we behave.

• The mental processes studied by cognitive psychologists: perception, attention, memory, language, thinking, problem solving 

Inference

 the act of drawing a conclusion from evidence and reasoning. This means that we use clues from observable behaviour, speech etc, to build an explanation of what is really going on in people's unobservable minds. This needs to be informed by a theoretical model that can make sense and combine many different pieces of evidence into a coherent explanation

Theoretical models

The information processing approach suggests information flows through a sequence of stages that involve input, storage and retrieval.

Multi-store model of memory diagram

Computer models

Where the mind is compared to a computer by suggesting there are similarities in the way information is processed. Computer analogy: there are similarities between the brain (central processing unit), coding (turning information into a usable format) and the use of ‘stores’. They infer mental processes from comparisons between the information (input) a person receives and the behaviour (output) they produce

Advantages of theoretical models

Enhance understanding of internal processes

Disadvantages of theoretical models

Can be difficult to test experimentally

Models views are oversimplified

Advantages of computer models

Assumptions can be precise

Influential (eg. problem solver suggesting humans use simple rules of thumb when solving problems)

Can help us understand unobservable processes