comprehensive final exam

Eukaryotic vs Prokaryotic

Eukaryotic cells have a nucleus and membrane-bound organelles; prokaryotic cells do not.

Prokaryotic Taxa

Bacteria and Archaea.

Eukaryotic Taxa

Plants, fungi, protozoans, animals.

Viruses classification

Viruses are neither prokaryotic nor eukaryotic.

Types of Chemical Bonds

Ionic, covalent, and hydrogen bonds.

Ionic Bond Formation

Occurs when electrons are transferred between atoms (e.g., metal and non-metal).

Covalent Bond Formation

Occurs when atoms share electrons (usually non-metals).

Hydrogen Bond Definition

A weak bond between a hydrogen atom and an electronegative atom like oxygen or nitrogen.

Subatomic Particles

Proton, neutron, and electron.

Location of Subatomic Particles

Proton and neutron in nucleus; electron in orbitals.

Charges of Subatomic Particles

Proton: +1, Neutron: 0, Electron: -1.

Mass of Subatomic Particles

Proton ≈ 1 amu, Neutron ≈ 1 amu, Electron ≈ 0 amu.

Octet Rule

Atoms are most stable with 8 electrons in their outer shell.

Cation Definition

A positively charged ion formed by loss of electrons.

Anion Definition

A negatively charged ion formed by gain of electrons.

Cohesion Definition

Water molecules sticking to each other.

Adhesion Definition

Water molecules sticking to other substances.

Water Temperature Regulation

Water has a high specific heat, stabilizing temperature.

Hydrophilic Definition

Attracted to water (water-loving).

Hydrophobic Definition

Repelled by water (water-fearing).

Hydrogen Bond in Water

Attraction between the hydrogen of one water molecule and the oxygen of another.

Metabolic Pathways

Anabolism builds molecules; catabolism breaks down molecules.

Photosynthesis Pathway

Anabolic metabolic pathway.

Cellular Respiration Pathway

Catabolic metabolic pathway.

Dehydration Synthesis

An anabolic process that builds molecules.

Hydrolysis Process

Catabolic process that breaks down molecules.

Passive Transport Definition

Movement of molecules without energy input (e.g., diffusion, osmosis).

Active Transport Definition

Movement using ATP against the concentration gradient.

Simple Diffusion Definition

Movement of small, nonpolar molecules across the membrane.

Facilitated Diffusion Definition

Movement of molecules using transport proteins.

Proteins in Active Transport

Carrier proteins like pumps (e.g., sodium-potassium pump).

Nucleus Function

Stores DNA and controls cell activity.

Lysosomes Definition

Organelles containing digestive enzymes.

Peroxisomes Function

Organelles that detoxify and break down fatty acids.

Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER)

Network for protein (rough ER) and lipid (smooth ER) synthesis.

Golgi Apparatus Function

Modifies, sorts, and ships proteins and lipids.

Cell Membrane Function

Regulates what enters and exits the cell.

Cell Wall Function

Provides support and protection in plant cells.

Ribosomes Function

Sites of protein synthesis.

Cilia Function

Short hair-like structures for movement.

Mitochondrion Function

Produces ATP through cellular respiration.

Flagellum Definition

Long tail-like structure for movement.

Chloroplasts Function

Site of photosynthesis in plant cells.

Four Macromolecules

Carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, nucleic acids.

Monomer of Carbohydrates

Monosaccharides.

Monomer of Proteins

Amino acids.

Monomer of Lipids

Glycerol and fatty acids.

Monomer of Nucleic Acids

Nucleotides.

Cellular Respiration Equation

C₆H₁₂O₆ + 6O₂ → 6CO₂ + 6H₂O + ATP.

Photosynthesis Equation

6CO₂ + 6H₂O + light → C₆H₁₂O₆ + 6O₂.

Stages of Cellular Respiration

Glycolysis, Krebs cycle, Electron Transport Chain.

Glycolysis Location and Production

Occurs in the cytoplasm; produces ATP and pyruvate.

Krebs Cycle Location

Occurs in the mitochondrial matrix.

Electron Transport Chain Function

Occurs in inner mitochondrial membrane; produces most ATP.

Photosynthesis Stages

Light reactions and Calvin cycle.

Location of Light Reactions

Thylakoid membranes.

Location of Calvin Cycle

Stroma of chloroplasts.

Autotroph Definition

Organisms that make their own food.

Heterotroph Definition

Organisms that consume others.

Groups of Autotrophs and Heterotrophs

Bacteria (both), protozoans (heterotrophs), fungi (heterotrophs), plants (autotrophs), animals (heterotrophs).

Capsule vs Capsid

Capsule = bacterial outer layer; capsid = viral protein coat.