comprehensive final exam

🧬 1. Eukaryotic vs Prokaryotic

Q1: What is the key difference between eukaryotic and prokaryotic cells?
A1: Eukaryotic cells have a nucleus and membrane-bound organelles; prokaryotic cells do not.

Q2: Which taxa are prokaryotic?
A2: Bacteria and Archaea.

Q3: Which taxa are eukaryotic?
A3: Plants, fungi, protozoans, animals.

Q4: Are viruses prokaryotic or eukaryotic?
A4: Neither; viruses are non-cellular.

🧪 2. Chemical Bonds

Q5: What are the three major types of chemical bonds?
A5: Ionic, covalent, and hydrogen bonds.

Q6: When do atoms form ionic bonds?
A6: When electrons are transferred between atoms (e.g., metal and non-metal).

Q7: When are covalent bonds formed?
A7: When atoms share electrons (usually non-metals).

Q8: What is a hydrogen bond?
A8: A weak bond between a hydrogen atom and an electronegative atom like oxygen or nitrogen.

⚛ 3. Atomic Structure

Q9: What are the 3 subatomic particles?
A9: Proton, neutron, and electron.

Q10: Where is each subatomic particle located?
A10: Proton and neutron in nucleus; electron in orbitals.

Q11: What are the charges of subatomic particles?
A11: Proton: +1, Neutron: 0, Electron: –1.

Q12: What is the mass of subatomic particles?
A12: Proton ≈ 1 amu, Neutron ≈ 1 amu, Electron ≈ 0 amu.

Q13: What is the octet rule?
A13: Atoms are most stable when they have 8 electrons in their outer shell.

Q14: What is a cation?
A14: A positively charged ion (loss of electrons).

Q15: What is an anion?
A15: A negatively charged ion (gain of electrons).

💧 4. Properties of Water

Q16: What is cohesion?
A16: Water molecules sticking to each other.

Q17: What is adhesion?
A17: Water molecules sticking to other substances.

Q18: How does water regulate temperature?
A18: It has a high specific heat, stabilizing temperature.

Q19: What does hydrophilic mean?
A19: Attracted to water (water-loving).

Q20: What does hydrophobic mean?
A20: Repelled by water (water-fearing).

Q21: What is a hydrogen bond in water?
A21: An attraction between the hydrogen of one water molecule and the oxygen of another.

🔁 5. Metabolism

Q22: What are the two major metabolic pathways?
A22: Anabolism (builds molecules) and catabolism (breaks down molecules).

Q23: Is photosynthesis anabolic or catabolic?
A23: Anabolic.

Q24: Is cellular respiration anabolic or catabolic?
A24: Catabolic.

Q25: Is dehydration synthesis anabolic or catabolic?
A25: Anabolic.

Q26: Is hydrolysis anabolic or catabolic?
A26: Catabolic.

🧫 6. Membrane Transport

Q27: What is passive transport?
A27: Movement of molecules without energy input (e.g., diffusion, osmosis).

Q28: What is active transport?
A28: Movement of molecules using ATP against the concentration gradient.

Q29: What is simple diffusion?
A29: Movement of small, nonpolar molecules across membrane.

Q30: What is facilitated diffusion?
A30: Movement using transport proteins.

Q31: What proteins are used in active transport?
A31: Carrier proteins like pumps (e.g., sodium-potassium pump).

🧬 7. Cell Structures

Q32: What does the nucleus do?
A32: Stores DNA and controls cell activity.

Q33: What are lysosomes?
A33: Organelles containing digestive enzymes.

Q34: What are peroxisomes?
A34: Organelles that detoxify and break down fatty acids.

Q35: What is the ER?
A35: Network for protein (rough ER) and lipid (smooth ER) synthesis.

Q36: What does the Golgi apparatus do?
A36: Modifies, sorts, and ships proteins and lipids.

Q37: What is the function of the cell membrane?
A37: Regulates what enters and exits the cell.

Q38: What is the function of the cell wall?
A38: Provides support and protection in plant cells.

Q39: What are ribosomes?
A39: Sites of protein synthesis.

Q40: What are cilia?
A40: Short hair-like structures for movement.

Q41: What is the mitochondrion's function?
A41: Produces ATP through cellular respiration.

Q42: What is a flagellum?
A42: Long tail-like structure for movement.

Q43: What do chloroplasts do?
A43: Site of photosynthesis in plant cells.

🍔 8. Macromolecules

Q44: What are the four macromolecules?
A44: Carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, nucleic acids.

Q45: What is the monomer of carbohydrates?
A45: Monosaccharides.

Q46: What is the monomer of proteins?
A46: Amino acids.

Q47: What is the monomer of lipids?
A47: Glycerol and fatty acids.

Q48: What is the monomer of nucleic acids?
A48: Nucleotides.

🌱 9 & 10. Equations & Cellular Respiration

Q49: What is the equation for cellular respiration?
A49: C₆H₁₂O₆ + 6O₂ → 6CO₂ + 6H₂O + ATP.

Q50: What is the equation for photosynthesis?
A50: 6CO₂ + 6H₂O + light → C₆H₁₂O₆ + 6O₂.

Q51: What are the 3 stages of cellular respiration?
A51: Glycolysis, Krebs cycle, Electron Transport Chain.

Q52: Where does glycolysis occur and what does it produce?
A52: Cytoplasm; produces ATP and pyruvate.

Q53: Where does the Krebs cycle occur?
A53: Mitochondrial matrix.

Q54: What happens in the ETC?
A54: Occurs in inner mitochondrial membrane; produces most ATP.

☀ 11. Photosynthesis

Q55: What are the 2 stages of photosynthesis?
A55: Light reactions and Calvin cycle.

Q56: Where do light reactions occur?
A56: Thylakoid membranes.

Q57: Where does the Calvin cycle occur?
A57: Stroma of chloroplasts.

🌿 12. Nutrition Modes

Q58: Define autotroph and heterotroph.
A58: Autotrophs make their own food; heterotrophs consume others.

Q59: Which groups are autotrophs or heterotrophs?
A59: Bacteria (both), protozoans (heterotrophs), fungi (heterotrophs), plants (autotrophs), animals (heterotrophs).

🧬 13. Microbial Structures

Q60: What is the difference between capsule and capsid?
A60: Capsule = bacterial outer layer; capsid = viral protein coat.