3.1

CNS

Brain and spinal cord

Recevies sensory info from pns and sends motor info to PNS.

recives, process, respond

PNS

EVERYTHING OUTSIDE cns. (comprised of muscles, organs, glands)

-Sends sensory info to the CNS (brain)

-Receives motor info from CNS (brain)

Breaks into somatic and autonomic

Somatic

Volunary control of skeletal muscles.

-Eg: touching hot stove and consciously pulling away

Autonomic

Regulating involuntary bodily functions (heart rate, respiratory rate, digestion)

Broken into parasympathetic and symapthetic

Sympathetic nervous system (broken from ANS)

Arousal/stress response

-Fight/flight response

Parasympathetic nervous system (broken from ANS)

Maintains body in state of homestasis, returns body to state of calm

(rest and digest)

Sensory (afferenet neurons)

Transmit sensory info from body to brain (toward)

Conscious vs unconscious response`

Neurons have different appearances due to different ways they communicate

-Conscious awareness-SOMATIC (eg, waving your hand)

-Unconsicous awareness-AUTONOMIC (eg, breathing)

Spinal reflex

Autonomatic response that is intiitated by neurons in spinal cord, independent of the brain.

(brain is informed after reflex occurs)

Motor (efferent neurons)

-Transmits motor info from brain to body (away)

Interneuron

Transmits info between sensory and motor neurons

Neurons

Communicate info around the body

Strucutre

Dendrite-Receives neural messages

Soma-Body of neuron, containing nucleus

Axon-Pathway which neural message travels

Mylein sheath-Fatty tissue that insulates and speeds up transmission

Axon terminals-Exit pathways for neural messages to go to next neuron

Terminal buttons-Relese neurotransmitter to receiving neuron for communication purposes

Neuotransmission

process of communciation between neurons using electrochecmical energy

Neurotransmitters

Chemcial messenegers released by terminal button that transmit signals across synapse. Fast, direct, act at one synapse

Excitatory neurotransmitters

Increase liklihood of neuron firing

Eg, Glutamate-crucial for learning and memory

Inhibitory neurotransmitter

Decrease likliehood that neuron will fire an action potential

Eg-GABA-Calming feelings of anxiety, stress or fear

Neuromodulators

Influence effectiveness or strength of neurotransmitters, chemcial messenger that enhances signal transmission. Slower, direct, affect many neurons.

Dopamine

Neuromodulator involved in drive, motivation and motor movement (pleasure)

Serotonin

Neuromodulator, mood stablisation

Neuroplasticitiy

Brains ability to change structure and funciton in response to experience

Synaptic plasticity

Brains ability to change strength and structure of synaptic connections in response to experience

Long-term Potentiation

Long-lasting strengthening of synaptic conenctions due to repeated activation

Long-term Depression

Long-lasting weakning of synaptic conenctions between neurons that aren’t regularly activated

Sprouting

new synaptic connections form

Rerouting

Ability of neuron that is conencted to damaged neuron to create alternate synaptic connection

Pruning

Eliminating synaptic conenctions that aren’t used

Stress

Psychology and physioligcla state of tension in response to a stimulus

Distress

form of stress characterised by negative pscyhological state

Eustress

Form of stress characterised by positive pscyhological state

Stressor

Stimulus that prompts stress response, either internal or external

Internal stressors

Stimulus from within a persons body

EG: Hunger, ilness (physiological)

Pessimisitc attitude, low self-esteem (pscyhologcial)

External stressor

Stimulus from outside persons body that prompts the stress response.

EgL upcoming exam, financial difficulties, relationship conflicts

Relationship between stressors and stress response

In order:

Stressor (stimulus that prompts a stress response) then…

Stress (pscyhological and physiologcial state of tension) then…..

Stress response: Result of stress dosplayed in physiological or pscyhological characterisitcs

Stress responses (physiolocial)

Skin rashes

headaches

colds/flu

heart attack

Stress responses (Psychological)

Behavioural-Changes to eating habits, sleep

Emotional-Irritiability, aggression

Cognitive-Decreased concentration, memory impairment

Fight-flight-freeze response

Involuntary and automatic response to a threat that takes from of either escaping, confronting or freezing in the face of it

Cortisol

Hormone released in times of stress to aid body in initiating and maintaining heightned arousal. Primary role: increasing glucose.

Hans Selye’s General Adaptation Syndrome Stage 1

-Alarm reaction (shock)

Resistance to stress-Below Normal

Symptoms/characteristics-Body acts as though its injured, blood pressure and body temp drop

Hans Selye’s General Adaptation Syndrome Stage 2

Alarm reaction (counter shock)

Resistance to stress-Above normal

Symptoms/characterisitcs-SNS activated, fight-flight-freeze is activated, adrenaline is released

Hans Selye’s General Adaptation Syndrome Stage 3

Resistance

Resistance to stress-Above normal

Symptoms/characterisitcs-Cortisol released and all unnecesary functions are shut down, individual appears as though all is normal

Hans Selye’s General Adaptation Syndrome Stage 4

Exhaustion

Resistance to stress-Below normal

Symptoms/characteristics-Resources are depleted, immune system is weakened, prolonged release of adreanline has negative effects on body, individual susceptible to illness and disease

How does GAS explain stress

Explains experience of stress from biological perspective

ADV and disadv of GAS

+Evidence of relationship between stress and illness

+-Highlights predictable pattern that can be measured in indiviudals

—Research wasn’t conducted on humans

—Doesn’t account for individual differences and psychological factors

Lazarus and folkmans transactional model of stress and coping (psychological)

Stress involves an encounter (transaction) between individual and their external environment.

stress response depends on indiivudals interpretation (appraisal) of the stressor and their ability to cope with it

Elements of transactional model (primary appraisal)

Indiviudals assessment of the situation

-Is it positive, benign or stressful

If stressful what kind of stress:

Harm/loss=has happended

Threat=could happen

Challenge

Elements of the Transactional model (secondary apprisal)

Individuals assessment of available resources to deal with demands.

-Internal resources=character, personality

-External resources=support networks, money, time

ADV DISADV of Transactional Model

+-Accounts for indiviudal differences

+-Accounts for psychological factors(thoughts, appraisals, coping startegies)

—Hard to objectively measure as appriaslas are subjective

-Ignores some bioloigcal processes

Elements of the Transactional model (Reappraisal)

Individual re-evaluates stressful situation after coping strategies have been used.

Gut brain axis

bi-directional communication system between gut and brain through enteric and central nervous systems.

Enteric nervous system

Network of nuerons embedded in walls of gastrointestinal system

Gut

All the organs and components of digestive system that process food, absorb nutrients and excreting waste.

Gut microbiota

Living organisms in our gastrointestinal tract that maintain gut health and functioning

Vagus nerve

Nerve in Parasympathetic nervous system, sends signals from gut to brain, infleuncess mood, anxiety and stress response

How gut and brain communicate

-Vagus nerve connects gut and brain-sends messages between them

-Gut bacteria produce neurotransmitters, influence brain acitvitiy

-Stress activates stress response, cortisol released, cortisol changes gut bacteria

How stress affects the gut

When stressed:

-Cortisol is released, gut bacteria balance changes, digestion may be affected

This can increase: anxiety, low mood

How the Gut affects

If gut bacteria are unhealthy:

-fewer calming chemcials are produced

-Stress and anxiety may increase

Coping startegies (approach stratgeies)

Decrease stress by addressing or finding solutions to the problem

Eg-Applying for jobs, commencing homework

Coping startegies (avoidance)

Protecting oneself from psycholgoical distress by evading the stressor.

Eg-ignoring or denying the situation

Context specific effectiveness

appropiate for the unique demands of the stressor.

If our coping strategy is a good fit for the situation we call this context-specific effectiveness.

Think about: situational factors, personal characteistiics, the demands of the stressor

Coping flexibility

Ability to adjust or change coping strategies depending on the unqiue and changing demands of a stressor

controlled experiment

A study where IV is manipiulated, DV is measured, EV are controlled.

-High internal valdiity, may lack real-world application

Allocation

How participants are placed into experimental conditions; random (equal chance of being placed in any group)

-COntrols participant varaibles, increases internal valdiity

BEtween subjects

Different participants in each condition

-No order effects, less time consuming

-Partiipocant differences

Within subjects

Same pariticpants complete all conditions

-Controls participant differences

-Less participants needed

-Order effects (fatigue, practice)

Mixed design

Combination of between and within, used when different variables require different controls

Correlational

Measures relationship between 2 variables without manipulation. No cause-effect conclusioons. used when manipulation is unethical or impossible

Observational study

Observing and interacting in naturalistic setting

-High ecological valdiity

-Observer bias, no cause and effevt

Self-report

Report own thoughts, feelings, behaviours (questionaree, survey, interview)

-Quick, cheap

-Social desirbiability bias, inaccurate recall

Case study

In depth investigation of 1 individual or small grouo

-Rich, detailed data

-Low External validity, no cause-and effect

Literatrue review

Use secondary data (existing) to answer a question, or provides research for comparison before conducting primary data investgiations

-Cost effective

-Depends on quality of existing studies

Fieldwork

Collected in real-world environemnt

-High ecological valdiity

-Less control over variables

Modelling

Using representations (diagrams, physical, digital models) to explain processes

Simulatiotion

Controlled imitation of real life situations, uised when real situations are unethicla or impractical but may lack realism

Methodology is

How study is conduct

Study design is

How participants experience conditions

Experiments are

cause and effect

Non experiments are..

Relationships or descriptions only

Extraneous variables: demand characterisitcs

Cues that allow pariticpants to guess the aim and change behaviour.

COntrol methods: deception with breifing

order effects

changes in perfomance due to the order of conditons, practice and fatigue effect

Placebo effects

Changes in behaviour due to expectations and not the iv

Experiemnter effects

researcher unintetionally inlfuences participant behaviour

Eg, tone of voice, body language,

Non standardiesed procedures

Participants receive different insturctions or conditions

Accuracy

How close a measurement is to the true value of

Precision

How consistent repeated measuremnts are

Random error

Unpredictable variation in measuremnts

Eg-Participant guessing

Reduces: precision

Reduced by: larger sample size, repeated measruements

Systematic error

Consistent error in same direction every time

Eg-faulty equipment

Reduces: accuracy

Personal error

Eg, recording data incorrectly, misreading stopwatch

Often contributes to random or systematic error