AP psychology (3.7-3.9)

Learning

– A relatively permanent change in behavior or knowledge due to experience

Cognitive Learning

– Learning that involves mental processes such as thinking, understanding, and memory

Associative Learning

– Learning that certain events occur together

Stimulus

– Anything in the environment that can elicit a respons

Behavioral Perspective

– Focus on observable behaviors and how they are learned

Classical Conditioning

– Learning to associate two stimuli so that one elicits a response originally produced by the other

Respondent Behavior –

Behavior that occurs as an automatic response to a stimulus

Operant Behavior –

Behavior that operates on the environment to produce consequences

Acquisition –

The initial stage in classical conditioning when the CS and US are linked

Neutral Stimuli

– A stimulus that initially does not elicit a response

Unconditioned Stimulus –

A stimulus that naturally triggers a response without learning

Unconditioned Response –

The natural, unlearned reaction to a US

Conditioned Response –

The learned response to a previously neutral stimulus

Conditioned Stimulus –

A previously neutral stimulus that, after association with a US, triggers a conditioned response

Extinction –

The diminishing of a conditioned response when the CS is repeatedly presented without the US

Spontaneous Recovery –

Reappearance of an extinguished conditioned response after a rest period

Stimulus Discrimination –

Learning to respond only to a specific stimulus, not similar ones

Generalization –

Responding similarly to stimuli that resemble the CS

High-Order Conditioning –

A new neutral stimulus becomes a CS by being paired with an existing CS

Counter-Conditioning –

Conditioning a new response that is incompatible with a previous response

One-Trial Conditioning –

Learning that occurs after only one pairing of NS and US

Biological Preparedness –

Innate tendency to form associations between certain stimuli and responses

Habituation –

Decrease in response to a stimulus after repeated exposure

Pavlov’s Experiment –

Classical conditioning study with dogs, food, and bells to elicit salivation

Watson’s Experiment –

“Little Albert” study; conditioned fear of a white rat

Taste Aversion –

Avoidance of a particular food after illness caused by it

Operant Conditioning –

Learning where behavior is strengthened or weakened by consequences

B.F. Skinner Experiments –

Studied operant conditioning using rats and pigeons in Skinner boxes

Law of Effect –

Behaviors followed by favorable consequences are more likely to occur

Operant Chamber –

“Skinner box” used to study operant conditioning in animals

Discriminative Stimulus –

A stimulus that signals reinforcement is available

Reinforcement –

Any event that strengthens the behavior it follows

Punishment –

Any event that decreases the behavior it follows

Positive Reinforcement –

Adding a desirable stimulus to increase a behavior

Negative Reinforcement –

Removing an aversive stimulus to increase a behavior

Positive Punishment –

Adding an aversive stimulus to decrease a behavior

Negative Punishment –

Removing a desirable stimulus to decrease a behavior

Primary Reinforcers –

Naturally reinforcing, satisfying biological needs

Secondary Reinforcers –

Learned reinforcers associated with primary reinforcers

Reinforcement Discrimination –

Responding differently to stimuli based on which are reinforced

Reinforcement Generalization –

Responding to similar stimuli as if they are reinforced

Shaping –

Gradually reinforcing successive approximations of a target behavior

Instinctive Drift –

Tendency for learned behavior to revert to biologically predisposed patterns

Learned Helplessness –

Passive behavior from repeated exposure to uncontrollable events

Continuous Reinforcement –

Rewarding behavior every time it occurs

Partial Reinforcement –

Rewarding behavior only some of the time

Fixed-Interval Schedule –

Reinforcement after a set amount of time

Variable-Interval Schedule –

Reinforcement after varying amounts of time

Fixed-Ratio Schedule

– Reinforcement after a set number of responses

Variable-Ratio Schedule –

Reinforcement after an unpredictable number of responses

Social Learning Theory –

Learning by observing others and modeling behavior

Vicarious Conditioning –

Learning consequences of actions by observing others

Model –

Individual whose behavior is observed and imitated

Observational Learning –

Learning by watching others’ behavior and outcomes

Prosocial Behavior –

Positive, constructive, helpful behavior learned through modeling

Antisocial Behavior –

Negative, harmful behavior learned through modeling

Bandura and Bobo Dolls –

Study showing children imitate aggressive behavior modeled by adults