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Medici
A powerful Italian family that rose to prominence in the 15th century, known for their patronage of the arts and their influence in politics and banking.
Michelangelo
A Renaissance artist known for his sculptures, paintings, and architectural works, including the Statue of David and the ceiling of the Sistine Chapel.
Brunelleschi
An Italian architect and engineer who designed the dome of the Florence Cathedral, a landmark achievement in Renaissance architecture.
Leonardo da Vinci
A Renaissance artist, scientist, and inventor, known for works such as the Mona Lisa and The Last Supper, and for his contributions to anatomy and engineering.
Donatello
A Renaissance sculptor known for his lifelike and innovative sculptures, including the bronze statue of David.
Johannes Gutenberg
A German inventor who introduced the printing press to Europe in the 15th century, revolutionizing the production of books and spreading knowledge.
Printing press
A machine invented by Johannes Gutenberg that used movable type to print text, making books more affordable and accessible, and contributing to the spread of ideas during the Renaissance and Reformation.
Vernacular
The language spoken by the common people of a region, as opposed to Latin, which was used for scholarly and religious purposes in medieval Europe.
Indulgences
Certificates issued by the Catholic Church that were believed to reduce the punishment for sins, often sold to raise money for the church's projects, sparking controversy during the Reformation.
Martin Luther
A German monk and theologian who initiated the Protestant Reformation in the 16th century, challenging the authority of the Catholic Church and advocating for reform.
Pope Leo X
The pope who excommunicated Martin Luther and is known for his patronage of the arts, as well as his role in the sale of indulgences.
Lutherans
Followers of Martin Luther who broke away from the Catholic Church and formed the Lutheran Church, one of the first Protestant denominations.
John Calvin
A French theologian and reformer who founded Calvinism, emphasizing predestination and the authority of scripture.
Calvinism
A Protestant branch of Christianity founded by John Calvin, known for its emphasis on predestination and the sovereignty of God.
King Henry VIII
The King of England who broke away from the Catholic Church and established the Church of England after the Pope refused to annul his marriage to Catherine of Aragon.
Church of England
The national church of England, established by King Henry VIII after his split from the Catholic Church, also known as the Anglican Church.
Catholic Reformation
Also known as the Counter-Reformation, the Catholic Church's response to the Protestant Reformation, aiming to reform the church from within and address criticisms.
Counter-Reformation
See Catholic Reformation.
Ignatius Loyola
The founder of the Jesuits, a Catholic religious order known for its missionary work and educational institutions.
Jesuits
Members of the Society of Jesus, a Catholic religious order founded by Ignatius Loyola, known for their role in education, missionary work, and the Counter-Reformation.
Council of Trent
A Catholic council held in the 16th century in response to the Protestant Reformation, reaffirming Catholic doctrine and addressing abuses within the church.
Tycho Brahe
A Danish astronomer known for his accurate astronomical observations, which helped advance the understanding of the solar system.
Francis Bacon
An English philosopher and statesman known for his contributions to the scientific method and empiricism.
Johannes Kepler
A German astronomer known for his laws of planetary motion, which described the motion of planets in the solar system.
Sir Isaac Newton
An English mathematician and physicist known for his laws of motion and universal gravitation, laying the foundation for classical mechanics.
Atheists
People who do not believe in the existence of a god or gods.
King Ferdinand
Refers to several European monarchs, including Ferdinand II of Aragon, who, along with Queen Isabella, sponsored Christopher Columbus's voyages and unified Spain.
Queen Isabella
Queen of Castile who, along with King Ferdinand, sponsored Christopher Columbus's voyages and unified Spain.
Charles V
Holy Roman Emperor who ruled over an extensive empire, including Spain, the Netherlands, and parts of Italy and Germany, during the 16th century.
Ferdinand I
Holy Roman Emperor who ruled from 1556 to 1564 and was known for his attempts to reconcile Catholic and Protestant factions.
Philip II
King of Spain who ruled during the height of the Spanish Empire, known for his involvement in the Spanish Inquisition and the defeat of the Spanish Armada.
Spanish Inquisition
A series of investigations and trials in Spain aimed at identifying and punishing heretics and enforcing religious conformity.
Decree of Alhambra
An edict issued by King Ferdinand and Queen Isabella in 1492, expelling Jews from Spain unless they converted to Christianity.
Act of Supremacy
An act of the English Parliament in 1534 that declared King Henry VIII the supreme head of the Church of England, separating the English church from the authority of the Pope.
Elizabeth I
Queen of England from 1558 to 1603, known for her long and prosperous reign, as well as her role in the defeat of the Spanish Armada.
Elizabethan Age
The period of English history during the reign of Queen Elizabeth I, known for its flourishing of arts, literature, and exploration.
Muscovy Company
An English trading company chartered in 1555 to trade with Russia, playing a significant role in English trade with the East.
British East India Company
A trading company chartered in 1600 to trade with the East Indies, which played a major role in British imperialism in India.
James I
King of England and Scotland who ruled from 1603 to 1625, known for his advocacy of divine right monarchy and his translation of the Bible into English.
Charles I
King of England, Scotland, and Ireland who ruled from 1625 to 1649, known for his conflicts with Parliament that eventually led to the English Civil War and his execution.
Petition of Right
A document presented to Charles I in 1628, limiting the king's power and affirming the rights of Parliament.
Long Parliament
The English Parliament that convened in 1640 and lasted until 1660, playing a key role in the English Civil War and the trial and execution of Charles I.
Oliver Cromwell
A political and military leader who led the Parliamentarian forces during the English Civil War and later ruled as Lord Protector of England, Scotland, and Ireland.
English Commonwealth
The period of English history from 1649 to 1660, when England, Scotland, and Ireland were republics under Oliver Cromwell's rule.
Lord Protector
The title taken by Oliver Cromwell when he ruled as the head of state of England, Scotland, and Ireland during the English Commonwealth.
Stuart Restoration
The period of English history from 1660 to 1688, when the Stuart monarchy was restored to the throne after the English Civil War and the Commonwealth.
Habeas Corpus Act
An English law passed in 1679 that protects individuals from arbitrary arrest and imprisonment, guaranteeing the right to a fair trial.
Glorious Revolution
The peaceful overthrow of King James II of England in 1688, leading to the establishment of constitutional monarchy and the Bill of Rights.
English Bill of Rights
An act of the English Parliament in 1689 that limited the powers of the monarchy and established the rights of Parliament and the individual.
Huguenots
French Protestants who followed the teachings of John Calvin and were persecuted in France, leading many to flee to other countries.
Henry IV
King of France from 1589 to 1610, known for his conversion to Catholicism to secure the throne and his efforts to rebuild France after the religious wars.
Edict of Nantes
A decree issued by Henry IV in 1598 that granted religious freedom to the Huguenots and ended the religious wars in France.
Cardinal Richelieu
Chief minister to King Louis XIII of France, known for his centralizing policies and efforts to strengthen the power of the monarchy.
Cardinal Mazarin
Chief minister to King Louis XIV of France, known for his role in consolidating royal power and managing the government during Louis's minority.
Louis XIV
King of France from 1643 to 1715, known as the Sun King, who centralized power and expanded France's influence in Europe.
Jean Baptiste Colbert
Chief minister to Louis XIV of France, known for his economic policies that promoted industry, trade, and colonization.
War of Spanish Succession
A war fought from 1701 to 1714 over the succession to the Spanish throne, resulting in the Treaty of Utrecht and the decline of Spanish power.
Philip V
King of Spain from 1700 to 1746, the first Bourbon monarch of Spain, whose succession to the throne led to the War of Spanish Succession.
Peace of Augsburg
A treaty signed in 1555 that ended the religious wars in the Holy Roman Empire and established the principle of cuius regio, eius religio (whose realm, his religion).
Thirty Years’ War
A series of wars fought in Europe from 1618 to 1648, primarily in the Holy Roman Empire, involving many European powers and resulting in significant political and territorial changes.
Peace of Westphalia
A series of treaties signed in 1648 that ended the Thirty Years' War and the Eighty Years' War, establishing the foundation for modern European diplomacy.
Ivan III
Grand Prince of Moscow from 1462 to 1505, known for his expansion of the Russian state and his rejection of Mongol rule.
Ivan IV
Grand Prince of Moscow from 1533 to 1547 and the first Tsar of Russia from 1547 to 1584, known as Ivan the Terrible for his brutal rule.
Boyars
Russian nobles who served as advisers to the tsars and held significant power in Russian society.
Cossacks
Semi-nomadic warriors and settlers in Eastern Europe and Siberia, known for their military skills and role in Russian history.
Time of Troubles
A period of Russian history from 1598 to 1613 marked by political instability, famine, and foreign intervention, ending with the establishment of the Romanov dynasty.
Michael Romanov
The first Tsar of Russia from the Romanov dynasty, ruling from 1613 to 1645, ending the Time of Troubles.
Peter the Great
Tsar of Russia from 1682 to 1725, known for his extensive reforms that modernized Russia and expanded its influence.
Catherine the Great
Empress of Russia from 1762 to 1796, known for her political reforms and cultural patronage, as well as the expansion of the Russian Empire.
Ottoman Empire
A vast empire that lasted from the late 13th century to the early 20th century, centered in modern-day Turkey and encompassing much of Southeast Europe, Western Asia, and North Africa.
Osman Bey
The founder of the Ottoman dynasty and the namesake of the Ottoman Empire.
Timars
Land grants given to Ottoman soldiers in return for military service, a key component of the Ottoman feudal system.
Devshirme
A system in the Ottoman Empire where Christian boys were recruited to serve in the military or the bureaucracy, often converting to Islam in the process.
Selim I
Sultan of the Ottoman Empire from 1512 to 1520, known for his conquests in the Middle East and North Africa.
Suleiman I
Sultan of the Ottoman Empire from 1520 to 1566, known as Suleiman the Magnificent for his military campaigns and cultural achievements.
Babur
Founder of the Mughal Empire in India, ruling from 1526 to 1530, known for his military conquests and cultural patronage.
Mughal Empire
An empire in the Indian subcontinent that lasted from the early 16th century to the mid-19th century, known for its cultural achievements and religious tolerance.
Zamindars
Landlords in Mughal India who collected taxes and administered justice in exchange for land grants from the emperor.
Shah Jahan
Mughal emperor of India from 1628 to 1658, known for building the Taj Mahal and other architectural wonders.
Taj Mahal
A mausoleum in Agra, India, built by Emperor Shah Jahan in memory of his wife Mumtaz Mahal.
Songhai
A West African empire that flourished from the 15th to the 16th century, known for its wealth and trade routes.
Kongo and Angola
Kingdoms in Central Africa that were heavily involved in the Atlantic slave trade.
Asanti
An African empire in present-day Ghana that rose to prominence in the 17th century, known for its military prowess and gold trade.
King Alfonso I
The first king of Kongo, known for his efforts to Christianize his kingdom and establish diplomatic relations with Europe.
Angola
A kingdom in Central Africa that played a major role in the Atlantic slave trade.
Queen Nzinga
Queen of Angola from 1624 to 1663, known for her resistance against Portuguese colonization and her efforts to strengthen Angola's position in the region.
Zheng He
A Chinese admiral and explorer who led several naval expeditions in the early 15th century, reaching as far as Africa and the Middle East.
Qing
The last imperial dynasty of China, ruling from 1644 to 1912, founded by the Manchus.
Manchus
A people from Manchuria who conquered China and established the Qing dynasty.
Imperial portraits
Portraits of Chinese emperors and their families, often used to legitimize their rule and convey their power and authority.
Kangxi
Emperor of China from 1661 to 1722, known for his long and prosperous reign and his efforts to stabilize and expand the Qing Empire.
Qianlong
Emperor of China from 1735 to 1796, known for his military campaigns and cultural achievements, as well as the expansion of the Qing Empire.
Tokugawa Ieyasu
The founder and first shogun of the Tokugawa shogunate in Japan, ruling from 1603 to 1605.
Edo period
A period in Japanese history from 1603 to 1868, characterized by peace, economic growth, and cultural flourishing, centered around the city of Edo (modern-day Tokyo).
National Seclusion Policy
A policy implemented by the Tokugawa shogunate in the Edo period to restrict foreign influence and trade with other countries.
Kabuki
A form of Japanese theater that emerged in the Edo period, known for its elaborate costumes, stylized drama, and the use of male actors for all roles.
Haiku
A form of Japanese poetry consisting of three lines with a syllable pattern of 5-7-5, often focusing on nature or the seasons.
Prince Henry the Navigator
A Portuguese prince known for his support of exploration and navigation, leading to the Age of Discovery.
Vasco da Gama
A Portuguese explorer who was the first European to reach India by sea, establishing a direct trade route between Europe and Asia.
Christopher Columbus
An Italian explorer commissioned by Spain who reached the Americas in 1492, initiating European exploration and colonization of the New World.
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