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Personality Psychology
the scientific study of personality and its development, structure, traits, process, variations, and disordered forms
Ex: would you have helped your jailer out of the icy water?
Social Psychology
the scientific study of how we think about, influence, and relate to one another
Ex: why the same person acts differently in different situations
Person Perception
how we form impressions of ourselves and others, including attributions of behavior
Ex: If you learn that a new co-worker is very happy, you immediately assume she is also friendly, kind, and generous
Explanatory Style
a predictable pattern of attributions, interpreting good and bad events in ways that are pessimistic or optimistic
Ex: Pessimistic: “It’s all my fault” Optimistic: I’ll do better next time
Attribution Theory
We explain someone’s behavior by creating either the situation or the persons stable, enduring traits
Ex: Seeing someone shouting on public transport, you blame their character, assuming they are a angry person
Fundamental Attribution Error
the tendency for observers, when analyzing others behavior, to underestimate the impact of the situation and to overestimate the impact of personal disposition
Ex: attributing a coworkers lateness to the fact that they are unreliable rather than that they got stuck in traffic
Actor Observer Bias
acting in a situation to attribute their behavior to external causes, but for observers to attribute other’s behavior to lateral cases
Ex: External cause: you trip and fall, but blame their character slippery floor Internal cause: seeing a stranger trip and fall and blame it on their clumsiness
Prejudice
negative attitude toward a group and its members. Invades negative emotions, stereotyped beliefs, and a predisposition to discriminatory action
Ex: holding an opinion that women do not like to travel in their jobs and because of this you don’t select a women for job requiring travel
Ingredients in Prejudice’s Three
negative emotions, stereotypes, and discrimination
Stereotype
a generalized belief about a group of people
Ex: boys should like blue and green; girls like pink and purple
Discrimination
unjustifiable negative behavior toward a group or its members
Ex: black people get less money than whites
Just World Phenomenon
people believe that the world is just and that people therefore get what they deserve and deserve what they get
Ex: If someone got cursed, they think that they have done something wrong to deserve it
Social Identity
the “we” aspect of our self concept; part of our answer to “who am I” that comes from our group memberships
Ex: race, gender
In-group
“us” people with whom we share a common identity
Ex: being a man
Out-group
“then” those perceived as different or apart from our in-group
Ex: being man and seeing someone else that’s a women
In-group bias
the tendency to favor ones own group
Scapegoat Theory
prejudice offers an outlet for anger by providing someone to blame
Ex: the football team blames the QB who threw a pick for the loss even when other aspects of the game affected the outcome
Other Race Effect
recall faces of one’s own race more accurately than faces of other forms
Ex: white people confuse black faces more than their own race faces
Attitudes
predispose us to respond in a particular way to objects, people, and events
Foot In the Door Phenomenon
people who have first agreed to a small request to comply later with a large request
Ex: began with harmless requests, but generally increase into harmful requests
Role
a set of expectations about a social position, defying how those in the position ought be i behave
Ex: when moving out on your own, you feel like a child playing at “adulting” rather than an actual adult, Before long, the play acting normally becomes you
Cognitive Dissonance Theory
we act to reduce the discomfort we feel when two of our thoughts are inconsistent
Ex: when becoming aware that our attitudes and our actions clash, we reduce the resulting dissonance by changing our attitudes
Persuasion
changing people’s attitudes, potentially influencing their actions
Peripheral Route Persuasion
when people are influenced by incidental cues, such as a speakers attractiveness
Ex: celebrity endorsements as we believe beautiful or famous people are smart or trust worthy
Central Route Persuasion
when interested people’s thinking is influenced by considering evidence and arguments
Ex: COVID vaccines work because a study shows that 69% of people who used it survived
Norms
society understood rules for accepted and excepted behavior
Ex: at high school, jeans are the norm
Conformity
adjusting our behavior or thinking to concede with a group standard
Ex: everyone picks apples, then you do too
normative social behavior influence
influence resulting from a person’s desire to gain approval or avoid disapproval
informational social influence
influence resulting from a persons willingness to accept others opinions about reality
Obedience
complying with an order or command
Social Facilitation
in the presence of others, improved performance on simple or well learned tasks, and worsened performance on difficult tasks
Ex: actor becomes energized by having an audience and goes to have a better performance
Social Loafing
people in a group to exert less effort when pooling their efforts toward attaining a common goal
Ex: when someone takes advantage of the presence of their colleagues to do less work
Deinoviduation
the loss self awareness and self restraint occurring in group situations that foster arousal and anonymity
Ex: following the crowd in yelling at a referee or the opposing team
Group Polarization
the enhancement of a groups prevailing in clination through discussion within the group
Ex: person who are opposed to the minimum wage are likely, after talking to each other, will be even more opposed
Groupthink
occurs when the desire for harmony in a decision making group overrides a realistic appraisal of alternatives
Ex: leader of the group tells everyone to ban girls from the group, and everyone accepts without putting any thoughts into it
Culture
enduring behaviors, ideals, attitudes, values, and traditions shared by a group of people and go generation to the next
Ex: Cows are not eaten in the country of india
Tight Culture
a place with clearly defined and reliably imposed norms
Loose Cultures
a place with flexible and informal norms
Frustration Aggression Principle
frustration with blocks an attempt to achieve some goal, creates anger, which generates aggression
Ex: person takes frustration on their family because of their work; not getting the promotion
Social Scripts
culturally modeled guide for how to act in various
Ex: being a jock and bullying kids for their lunch money
Mere Exposure Effect
for repeated exposure to novel stimuli to increase our liking of them
Ex: buying a particular brand just because of the familiarity
Passionate Love
aroused state of intense positive absorption in another, usually present at the beginning of a romantic relationship
Ex: passionate lovers want to be always close, they crave physical touch
Companionate Love
deep affectionate attachment we feel for those with whom our lives are intertwined
Ex: aids children survival as the parents lose their obsession with each other
Equity
people receive from a relationship in proportion to what they give to it
Ex: a couples both contribute to the household and recognize each others needs and wants
Self Disclosure
act of revealing aspects of ourselves to others
Ex: telling others about our thoughts and hopes
Altruism
unselfish regard for the welfare of others
Ex: giving lunch money to a friend with no exception or desire
Bystander Effect
any given bystander to be less likely to give aid if other bystanders are present
Ex: crowds who record fights rather than report or stop than because others are them
Social Exchange Theory
our social behavior is an exchange process, the aim of which is to maximize benefits and minimize costs
Ex: helping someone out that’s not dangerous with the intent of them giving you a reward
Reciprocity Norm
exception that people will help, not hurt, those who have helped them
Ex: buying a lunch for a friend when last time they paid for it
Social Responsibility
expectation that people will help those needing their help
Ex: donating money or resources to charitable organizations, fundraisers
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