PSY100 - Test 2 Review

Information Processing Model

info flows from bottom-up to top-down through the nervous system.

Encoding Phase

info is acquired and processed into neural code that the brain can use

Storage Phase

retention of encoded info

Retrieval Phase

recovery of stored info

Multi-store Model of Memory

Atkinson-Shiffrin Model. Sensory memory → Short term memory → Long term memory 

Sensory Memory

holds large amounts of incoming data for brief amounts of time.

Iconic Memories

Sensory memory for visual information.

Haptic Codes

Sensory memory for touch and body senses.

Echoic Memories

Sensory memory for auditory information.

Short-Term Memory (STM)

Immediate memory that holds a small amount of information for a limited time.

Working Memory

An adaptation of STM that stores and manipulates information.

What are the 4 Components of Working Memory?

Phonological loop —> auditory and verbal information

Visuospatial sketchpad —> visual information

Central executive —> control center and directs attention to relevant information

Episodic buffer —> integrates information, links to long-term memory

Long-Term Memory (LTM)

The location of permanent memories.

Types of LTM

Declarative/Explicit + Nondeclarative/Implicit

Declarative/Explicit Memory

Memory that is easy to verbalize; consciously aware of.

Semantic Memory

A type of declarative memory that stores general knowledge; things you may know but not remember

Episodic Memory

A type of declarative memory that stores personal past experiences.

Autobiographical Memory

A type of memory that includes both semantic and episodic knowledge of the self.

HSAM

ability to recall large amounts of experiences, dates throughout a lifetime

Nondeclarative/Implicit Memory

Memories that are acquired and used without awareness or intention.; unconscious

Procedural Memory

stores motor skills and habits.

Priming

Improvement in identifying or processing a stimulus that has been experienced previously.

How is LTM Organized?

Connectionist Theories + Schemas

Spreading Activation Model

A connectionist theory proposing that people organize general knowledge based on their individual experiences

Schema

A set of expectations about objects and situations.

Maintenance Rehearsal

Simple repetition of material to retain it in short-term memory.

Elaborative Rehearsal

Linking new material to existing knowledge to retain it in long-term memory; levels of processing theory

Levels of Processing Theory

processing applied to info that predicts the ease of retrieval (includes  appearance - hardest, and sound/meaning - easiest)

Why is Sound/Meaning the easiest to encode?

has deeper levels of attention

How do we prevent Loss of Info?

We start off with chunking/maintenance rehearsal then transfer to elaborate for LTM

How do we retrieve ST memories?

 linear manner, one at a time (ex. cafhk)

Cue

 anything that helps someone recall information from memory; encoding specificity principles

Encoding Specificity

LTM are encoded in unique ways and are more easily retrieved in similar contexts.

Context Dependent Memory

Memory enhancement that occurs when the recall situation is similar to the encoding situation.

State Dependent Memory

Memory enhancement that occurs when one's internal state during recall matches the encoding state.

Medial Temporal Lobe

The region of the brain critical for episodic and spatial memory; patient HM

What is the Difference Between Working Memory and LTM?

serial position effect

Serial Position Effect

The tendency to perform worst in remembering words in the middle of a list.

Primacy effect

participants had time to rehearse words, encode to LTM

Recency Effect

refers to the superior recall for the last words on the list, STM

Decay

The reduction in the ability to retrieve rarely used information over time.

Interference

Competition between newer and older information in memory.

Proactive interference

old memories interfere with trying to remember new ones

Retroactive interference

new memories interfere with trying to remember old ones

Mnemonics

Memory aids that link new information to well-known information.

Method of Loci

uses visualizations of familiar spatial environments to recall info 

• Ex. thinking of a house, and moving through it

Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis

argues language we speak influences our perceptions and conditions

Linguistic determinism

structures limit and determine human knowledge or thought

Linguistic relativism

some particular aspect of language influences some particular aspect of cognition (weak form)

Aphasia

Language impairment affecting speech.

Broca's Aphasia/Nonfluent

characterized by difficulty in producing speech; slow but makes sense when they talk

Wernicke's Aphasia/fluent

characterized by difficulty in comprehension; no comprehension

Broca’s Area and Wernicke's Area

left frontal lobe, left temporal lobe + primary auditory cortex

Representation

Anything that stands in for or corresponds to something else.

Mental Representation

A hypothetical internal cognitive symbol that represents external reality.

Analogical Representations

Representations that maintain some physical characteristics of the actual object (image of princess)

Symbolic Representations

Representations that do not correspond to physical characteristics of actual objects. (the world princess)

Concept

A mental representation that groups objects, events, or relations around common themes.

Categorization

The process of grouping things based on shared information.

Defining-Attribute/Classical Categorization

Categorizing objects according to a certain set of rules or specific set of features.

Prototype

A representation that represents an entire category.

Exemplar

A specific memory of the category that is used to represent it.

Heuristics

Mental shortcuts or rules of thumb used for problem-solving.

Availability Heuristic

Estimating the frequency of an event based on how easily examples of it come to mind.

Representativeness Heuristic

Making judgments of likelihood based on how similar the

Personality type

A classification based on particular configurations of personality traits or other characteristics.

Big 5 Theory

A trait theory that identifies five main characteristics that account for most individual differences in personality, known as OCEAN.

Openness

A personality trait that encompasses fantasy, aesthetics, feelings, actions, ideas, and values.

Conscientiousness

A personality trait that includes competence, order, dutifulness, achievement striving, self-discipline, and deliberation.

Extraversion

A personality trait characterized by warmth, gregariousness, assertiveness, activity, and excitement seeking.

Agreeableness

A personality trait that involves trust, straightforwardness, altruism, compliance, and modesty.

Neuroticism

A personality trait associated with anxiety, angry hostility, depression, self-consciousness, and impulsivity.

Four Personality Types

Average, self-centered, reserved, and role model.

If-Then Behaviour Profiles

Emphasizes the interaction between the situation and the individual in determining behavior.

Inconsistency in Behavior

People may not behave consistently across all situations, but patterns of behavior tend to be consistent.