AP EURO CH.17 AN AGE OF ENLIGHTENMENT

Enlightenment

1. A philosophical movement which started in Europe in the 1700's and spread to the colonies. It emphasized reason and the scientific method.
2. Writers of the enlightenment tended to focus on government, ethics, and science, rather than on imagination, emotions, or religion.
3. Many members of the Enlightenment rejected traditional religious beliefs in favor of Deism, which holds that the world is run by natural laws without the direct intervention of God.

Immanuel Kant (1724-1804)

1. A german philosopher
2. Defined the Enlightenment as "man's leaving his self-caused immaturity."
3. thought that the mind comes into the world with certain inborn assumptions or predilections with which it molds experience
4. He wrote the Critique of Pure Reason and believed in uniting reason with experience, that the mind is a filter, that we experience things simply through our senses, and that reason is the source of morality
5. He was particularly prolific in the philosophy of ethics and metaphysics
6. He published a pamphlet in 1782 entitled What is Enlightenment? He answered, Sapere Aude [dare to know]! 'Have the courage to use your own understanding' is therefore the motto of enlightenment
7. He argued that if intellectuals were granted the freedom to exercise their reason publicly in print, enlightenment would almost surely follow
8. He was no revolutionary; he also insisted that in their private lives, individuals must obey all laws, not matter how unreasonable, and should be punished for "impertinent" criticism
9. He also tried to reconcile absolute monarchical authority and religious faith with a critical public sphere. He also popularized ideas of race and taught and wrote about "anthropology" and "geography."

Bernard de Fontenelle (1657-1757)

1. Secretary of the French Royal Academy of Science from 1691 to 1741
2. The direct link between the Scientific Revolution of the seventeenth century and the philosophes of the eighteenth century
3. His famous book, Plurality of Worlds, presented scientific information in an entertaining and more understandable way to the general population
4. performed no scientific experiments and made no scientific discoveries
5. He possessed a deep knowledge of all the scientific work of earlier centuries and his own time
6. Communicated scientific knowledge of earlier centuries in a clear way to help easier understand
7. Thanks to him, science was no longer the monopoly of experts but part of literature
8. Was especially fond of downplaying the religious backgrounds of the seventeenth-century scientists
9. contributed to the growing skepticism toward religion at the end of the seventeenth century by portraying the churches as enemies of scientific progress

Pierre Bayle (1647-1706)

1. Remained a Protestant while becoming a leading critic of traditional religious attitudes
2. Author of the Historical Critical Dictionary (1685), used by philosophes against the Christian faith
3. Argued for complete religious toleration, maintaining that the existence of many religions would benefit rather than harm the state

James Cook (1728-1779)

1. British explorer
2. Discovery of the Pacific island of Tahiti and of New Zealand and Australia

Denis Diderot (1713-1784)

1. Editor of the Encyclopedia, 28 volume set of collected knowledge of the era, which applied principles of the Scientific Revolution to society and human institutions; patronized by Catherine the Great of Russia when censored in France.
2. Maintained that all Africans were black and characterized them as a "new species of mankind."

John Locke (1632-1704)

1. English philosopher who wrote "The Second Treatise of Government"
2. Viewed humans as basically rational beings who learn from experience
3. Formulated the theory of natural rights, arguing that people are born with basic rights to "life, liberty, and property"
4. Insisted that governments are formed to protect natural rights
5. Stated that the governed have a right to rebel against rulers who violate natural rights
6. His theory of knowledge especially influenced the philosophes
7. Studied medicine at Oxford University before joining the household of Lord Ashley as a general counselor before fleeing for the Netherlands in 1683 where he wrote his Essay Concerning Human Understanding in 1690
8. Denied Descartes's belief in innate ideas, instead he argued that every person was born with a tabula rasa (blank mind)

Baron de Montesquieu (1689-1755)

1. Came from the French nobility
2. His first work, the Persian Letters, was published in 1721
-Used the format of two Persians supposedly traveling in western Europe and sending their impressions back home to enable him to criticize French institutions, especially the Catholic Church and the French monarchy
3. Most famous work was, The Spirit of the Laws, published in 1748
4. Attempted to apply the scientific method to the social and political arena to ascertain the "natural laws" governing the social relationships of human beings
5. distinguished three basic kinds of governments: republics, suitable for small states and based on citizen involvement; monarchy, appropriate for middle-sized states and grounded in the ruling class's adherence to law; and despotism, apt for large empires and dependent on fear to inspire obedience
6. Believed that England's system, with its separate executive, legislative, and judicial powers that served to limit and control each other, provided the greatest freedom and security for a state

Voltaire, François-Marie Arouet (1694-1778)

1. Son of a prosperous middle-class family from Paris, Voltaire received a classical education in Jesuit schools
2. Although he studied law, he wished to be a writer and achieved his first success as a playwright
3. had been hailed as the successor to Racine
4. His wit made him a darling of the Parisian intellectuals but also involved him in a quarrel with a dissolute nobleman that forced him to flee France and live in England for almost two years
5. His work, Philosophic Letters on the English, written in 1733
-Expressed a deep admiration of English life, especially its freedom of the press, its political freedom, and its religious toleration
6. Criticized the royal absolutism and the lack of religious toleration and freedom of thought of France
7. His Philosophic Letters were banned by France, sending Voltaire into exile to Cirey, near France's eastern border, where he lived in semi-seclusion on the estate of his mistress, the marquise du Châtelet
8. He penned his Treatise on Toleration, in which he argued that religious toleration had created no problems for England and Holland and reminded governments that "all men are brothers under God."
9. Asserted that "women are capable of all that men are" in intellectual affairs
10. The Calas affair; supported John Calas
11. The Age of Louis XIV: "It is not merely the life of Louis XIV that we propose to write; we have a wider aim in view. We shall endeavor to depict for posterity, not the actions of a single man, but the spirit of men in the most enlightened age the world has ever seen."

marquise du Châtelet (1706-1749)

1. The mistress of Voltaire, one of the first intellectuals to adopt the ideas of Isaac Newton and in 1759 published her own translation of newton's famous Principia
2. Collaborated on a book about the natural philosophy Newton.

Diderot (1713-1784)

1. Son of a skilled craftsman from eastern France
2.Became a freelance writer so that he could study many subjects and read in many languages
3. Of all religions, he maintained, Christianity was the worst, "the most absurd and the most atrocious in its dogma"
4. Diderot's most famous contribution to the Enlightenment was the twenty-eight-volume Encyclopedia, or Classified Dictionary of the Sciences, Arts, and Trades, that he edited and called the "great work of his life."
-became a major weapon of the philosophes' crusade against the old French society

Jean Calas

1. Protestant from Toulouse who was accused of murdering his own son to stop him from becoming a Catholic
2. It was proved that his son had actually committed suicide

David Hume (1711-1776)

1. An important figure in the history of philosophy
2. Hume has been called "a pioneering social scientist."
3. Treatise on Human Nature
-"An Attempt to Introduce the Experimental Method of Reasoning into Moral Subjects,"

François Quesnay (1694-1774)

1. The leader of the Physiocrats
2. A French economist whose Tableau Économique (1758) argued against government intervention in the economy and inspired Scottish economist Adam Smith's seminal Wealth of Nations (1776)

Adam Smith (1723-1790)

1. Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations
2. Presented a strong attack on mercantilism
3. Condemned the mercantilist use of tariffs to protect home industries
4. To Smith, free trade was a fundamental economic principle
5. Smith's second principle was his labor theory of value
6. Like the Physiocrats, he claimed that gold and silver were not the source of a nation's true wealth, but unlike the Physiocrats, he did not believe that land was either
7. labor of individual farmers, artisans, and merchants—constituted the true wealth of a nation

Baron Paul d'Holbach (1723-1789)

1. A wealthy German aristocrat who settled in Paris
2. Preached a doctrine of strict atheism and materialism 3. System of Nature, written in 1770
-He argued that everything in the universe consisted of matter in motion

Marie-Jean de Condorcet (1743-1794)

1. Made an exaggerated claim for progress
2. The Progress of the Human Mind

Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778)

1. He was orphaned at a young age and spent his youth wandering about France and Italy holding various jobs
2. Discourse on the Origins of the Inequality of Mankind
3. Tried to harmonize individual liberty with governmental authority
4. Fundamental concern was that education should foster rather than restrict children's natural instincts
5. Did not necessarily practice what he preached
6. Viewed women as "naturally" different from men

Mary Astell (1666-1731)

1. daughter of a wealthy English coal merchant
2. argued in 1697 in A Serious Proposal to the Ladies that women needed to become better educated
3. Some Reflections upon Marriage
-argued for the equality of the sexes in marriage: "If absolute sovereignty be not necessary in a state, how comes it to be so in a family? For if arbitrary power is evil in itself, and an improper method of governing rational and free agents, it ought not be practiced anywhere.... If all men are born free, how is it that all women are born slaves?"

Mary Wollstonecraft (1759-1797)

1. founder of modern European feminism
2. In Vindication of the Rights of Woman, written in 1792, Wollstonecraft pointed out two contradictions in the views of women held by such Enlightenment thinkers as Rousseau
3. To argue that women must obey men, she said, was contrary to the beliefs of the same individuals that a system based on the arbitrary power of monarchs over their subjects or slave owners over their slaves was wrong

Marie-Thérèse de Geoffrin (1699-1777)

1. A wealthy bourgeois widow whose father had been a valet
2. Welcomed the encyclopedists to her salon and offered financial assistance to complete the work in secret

marquise du Deffand (1697-1780)

1. abandoned her husband in the provinces and established herself in Paris, where her ornate drawing room attracted many of the Enlightenment's great figures, including Montesquieu, Hume, and Voltaire

Antoine Watteau (1684-1721)

1. One of the Rococo artists
2. Created a specific type of Rococo; his paintings portrayed a lyrical view of aristocratic life—refined, sensual, civilized, with gentlemen and ladies in elegant dress—reflecting a world of upper-class pleasure and joy
3.element of sadness in the interior as the artist revealed the fragility and transitory nature of pleasure, love, and life
4. Relied upon the use of color rather than representational form to highlight his subjects
5. Died at the age of thirty-six from tuberculosis

Jean-Honoré Fragonard (1732-1806)

1. Continued Watteau's use of color and subject matter of aristocratic life

Balthasar Neumann (1687-1753)

1. One of the greatest architects of the eighteenth century
2. Boroque-Rococo architectural style was evident in his works
3. Two masterpieces are the pilgrimage church of the Vierzehnheiligen in southern Germany and the Bishop's Palace, known as the Residenz, the residential palace of the Schönborn prince-bishop of Würzburg

Jacques-Louis David (1748-1825)

1. Classical elements are evident in his work
2. In the Oath of the Horatii, he re-created a scene from Roman history in which the three Horatius brothers swore an oath before their father, proclaiming their willingness to sacrifice their lives for their country
3. David's neoclassical style, with its moral seriousness and its emphasis on honor and patriotism, made him extremely popular during the French Revolution

Johann Sebastian Bach (1685-1750)

1. Came from a family of musicians
2. Held the post of organist and music director at a number of small German courts before becoming director of church music at the Church of Sant Thomas in Leipzig in 1723
-There Bach composed his Mass in B Minor, his Saint Matthew's Passion, and the cantatas and motets that have established his reputation as one of the greatest composers of all time
3. To him music was above all a means to worship God; in his own words, his task in life was to make "well-ordered music in the honor of God"

George Frederick Handel (1685-1759)

1. Born in Saxony in Germany
2. In contrast to Bach's quiet provincial life, however, Handel experienced a stormy international career and was profoundly secular in temperament
3. After studying in Italy, where he began his career by writing operas in the Italian manner, in 1712 he moved to England, where he spent most of his adult life attempting to run an opera company
4. Although patronized by the English royal court, Handel wrote music for large public audiences and was not averse to writing huge, unusual-sounding pieces
5. Handel is, ironically, probably best known for his religious music
-Handel is, ironically, probably best known for his religious music

Franz Joseph Haydn (1732-1809)

1. Spent most of his adult life as musical director for the wealthy Hungarian princes, the Esterhazy brothers
2. Was incredibly prolific, composing 104 symphonies in addition to string quartets, concerti, songs, oratorios, and Masses
3. His visits to England in 1790 and 1794 introduced him to another world, where musicians wrote for public concerts rather than princely patrons
-Induced him to write his two great oratorios, The Creation and The Seasons, both of which were dedicated to the common people
4. Remarked to Mozart's father that "your son is the greatest composer known to me either in person or by reputation"

Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart (1756-1791)

1. The concerto, symphony, and opera all reached their zenith in the works of his
2. A child prodigy who gave his first harpsichord concert at six and wrote his first opera at twelve
3. He sought a patron, but his discontent with the overly demanding archbishop of Salzburg forced him to move to Vienna, where his failure to find a permanent patron made his life miserable
4. He wrote music prolifically and passionately until he died a debt-ridden pauper at thirty-five
5. Carried the tradition of Italian comic opera to new heights with The Marriage of Figaro, based on a Parisian play of the 1780s in which a valet outwits and outsings his noble employers, and Don Giovanni, a "black comedy" about the havoc Don Giovanni wrought on earth before he descended into hell
6. Mozart composed with an ease of melody and a blend of grace, precision, and emotion that arguably no one has ever excelled

Samuel Richardson (1689-1761)

1. Was a printer by trade and did not turn to writing until his fifties
2. His first novel, Pamela: or, Virtue Rewarded, focused on a servant girl's resistance to numerous seduction attempts by her master. Finally, by reading the girl's letters describing her feelings about his efforts, the master realizes that she has a good mind as well as an attractive body and marries her.
3. Pamela won Richardson a large audience as he appealed to the growing cult of sensibility in the eighteenth century—the taste for the sentimental and emotional

Samuel Johnson (1709-1784)

1. English writer who made lasting contributions to English literature as a poet, essayist, moralist, literary critic, biographer, editor and lexicographer
2. He was a devout Anglican and committed Tory, and is described as "the most distinguished man of letters in English history"
3. After nine years of work, Johnson's A Dictionary of the English Language was published in 1755. It had a far-reaching effect on Modern English and has been acclaimed as "one of the greatest single achievements of scholarship"
-This work brought Johnson popularity and success
4. Until the completion of the Oxford English Dictionary 150 years later, Johnson's was the pre-eminent British dictionary
5. Remarked, "If you were to read Richardson for the story ... you would hang yourself. But you must read him for the sentiment"(about Samuel Richardson)

Henry Fielding (1707-1754)

1. Wrote novels about people without scruples who survived by their wits
2. His best work was The History of Tom Jones, a Foundling, a lengthy novel about the numerous adventures of a young scoundrel
3. Fielding presented scenes of English life from the hovels of London to the country houses of the aristocracy
4. Although he emphasized action rather than inner feeling, Fielding did his own moralizing by attacking the hypocrisy of his age

Edward Gibbon (1737-1794)

1. Thought that the decline of Rome had many causes, he portrayed the growth of Christianity as a major reason for Rome's eventual collapse
2. Gibbon believed in the idea of progress and, in reflecting on the decline and fall of Rome, expressed his optimism about the future of European civilization and the ability of Europeans to avoid the fate of the Romans

Cesare Beccaria (1738-1794)

1. Italian philosophe
2. Sought to create a new approach to justice
3. In his essay On Crimes and Punishments, written in 1764, Beccaria argued that punishments should serve only as deterrents, not as exercises in brutality:
-"Such punishments ... ought to be chosen as will make the strongest and most lasting impressions on the minds of others, with the least torment to the body of the criminal"
4. Opposed to the use of capital punishment
-Was spectacular, but it failed to stop others from committing crimes
--Imprisonment—the deprivation of freedom—made a far more lasting impression

Count Nikolaus von Zinzendorf (1700-1760)

1. Pietism was spread by the teachings of his
2. was utterly opposed to what he perceived as the rationalistic approach of orthodox Lutheran clergy, who were being educated in new "rational" ideas
-"He who wishes to comprehend God with his mind becomes an atheist"

John Wesley (1703-1791)

1. An ordained Anglican minister
2. suffered a deep spiritual crisis and underwent a mystical experience
-"I felt I did trust in Christ alone for salvation; and an assurance was given me, that He had taken away my sins, even mine, and saved me from the law of sin and death."
3. To Wesley, "the gift of God's grace" assured him of salvation and led him to become a missionary to the English people, bringing the "glad tidings" of salvation to all people, despite opposition from the Anglican Church
-Criticized this emotional mysticism or religious enthusiasm as superstitious nonsense
4. To him, all could be saved by experiencing God and opening the doors to his grace
5. He said, "to lower religion to the level of the lowest people's capacities."
6. Founder of Methodism
7. Wesley's charismatic preaching often provoked highly charged and even violent conversion experiences
-converts were organized into so-called Methodist societies or chapels in which they could aid each other in doing the good works that Wesley considered a component of salvation

Thomas Hobbes (1588-1679)

1. English political philosopher who wrote "Leviathan"
2. Viewed human beings as naturally self-centered and prone to violence
3. Feared the dangers of anarchy more than the dangers of tyranny
4. Argued that monarchs have absolute and unlimited political authority

Plurality of Worlds (1686)

1. Written by Bernard de Fontenelle
2. Presented scientific information in an entertaining and more understandable way to the general population
3. Was actually presented in the form of an intimate conversation between a lady aristocrat and her lover who are engaged in conversation under the stars

Historical Critical Dictionary (1685)

1. Written by Pierre Bayle
2. Work that cross-referenced ideas in a way that encouraged skeptical or heterodox conclusions

Cook's Travels

1. An account of James Cook's journey
2. Became a best-seller
3. Educated Europeans responded to these accounts of lands abroad in different ways

the Persia Letters

1. Published by Montesquieu
2. First work published by him
3. Used the format of two Persians supposedly traveling in western Europe and sending their impressions back home to enable him to criticize French institutions, especially the Catholic Church and the French monarchy

The Spirit of the Laws

1. Published by Montesquieu
2. His most famous work
3. Comparative study of governments in which Montesquieu attempted to apply the scientific method to the social and political arena to ascertain the "natural laws" governing the social relationships of human beings

Philosophic Letters on the English

1. Published by Voltaire
2. Expressed a deep admiration of English life, especially its freedom of the press, its political freedom, and its religious toleration

Skepticism

1. A doubtful or questioning attitude, especially about religion

cultural relativism

1. The belief that no culture is superior to another because culture is a matter of custom, not reason, and derives its meaning from the group holding it
2. Accompanied by religious skepticism

The intellectual inspiration for the Enlightenment

1. Came primarily from two Englishmen, Isaac Newton and John Locke

Philosophe

1. Fench term
2. The intellectuals of the Enlightenment
3. Few were actually philosophers
4. Literary people, professors, journalists, statesmesmen, economists, political scientists, and social reformers
5. Responsible for creating a revolution in the writing of history
6. Their secular orientation caused them to eliminate the role of God in history and freed them to concentrate on events themselves and search for causal relationships in the natural world
7. The philosophe-historians also broadened the scope of history from the humanists' preoccupation with politics
8. The weaknesses of these philosophe-historians stemmed from their preoccupations as philosophes
9. Sought to instruct as well as entertain
10. Goal was to help civilize their age, and history could play a role by revealing its lessons according to their vision
11. Their emphasis on science and reason and their dislike of Christianity made them less than sympathetic to the period we call the Middle Ages

Cosmopolitan

1. the quality of being sophisticated and having wide international experience

freedom of expression

1. The philosphes' call
2. Reminder that their work was done in an atmosphere of censorship
3. The philosophes were not free to write whatever they chose
4. State censors decided what could be published, and protests from any number of government bodies could result in the seizure of books and the imprisonment of their authors, publishers, and sellers
5. The philosophes found ways to get around state censorship
-Some published under pseudonyms or anonymously or abroad, especially in Holland
6. The use of double meanings, such as talking about the Persians when they meant the French, became standard procedure for many

separation of powers

1. A doctrine enunciated by Montesquieu in the eighteenth century that separate executive, legislative, and judicial powers serve to limit and control each other.

Treatise on Toleration (1763)

1. written by Voltaire
2. he wrote this after learning about the execution of a Huguenot, Jean Calas, who had been accused of murdering his son to prevent him from converting to Roman Catholicism
3. Calas was publicly tortured and strangled to death
4. he hounded the authors for a new investigation

Deism

1. Belief in God as the creator of the universe who, after setting it in motion, ceased to have any direct involvement in it and allowed it to run according to its own natural laws.

Laissez-faire

1. Idea that government should play as small a role as possible in economic affairs

economic liberalism

A belief in free trade and competition based on Adam Smith's argument that the invisible hand of free competition would benefit all individuals, rich and poor.

The social contract

1. an agreement on the part of an entire society to be governed by its general will. If any individual wished to follow his own self-interest, he should be compelled to abide by the general will

Romanticism

1. A nineteenth-century intellectual and artistic movement that rejected the emphasis on reason of the Enlightenment. Instead, Romantics stressed the importance of intuition, feeling, emotion, and imagination as sources of knowing.

Salon

1. Gatherings of philosophes and other notables to discuss the ideas of the Enlightenment; so called from the elegant drawing rooms (salons) where they met
2. As hostesses of the salons, women found themselves in a position to affect the decisions of kings, sway political opinion, and influence literary and artistic taste
3. Provided havens for people and views unwelcome in the royal court
4. reputation of a salon depended on the stature of the males a hostess was able to attract
5. both French and foreign observers complained that females exerted undue influence in French political affairs
-this perception led to the decline of salons during the French Revolution
6. served an important role in promoting conversation and sociability between upper-class men and women as well as spreading the ideas of the Enlightenment

Rococo

1. New style by the 1730s
2. Influenced decoration and architecture all over Europe
3. soirées of intellectuals and aristocrsts emerged the new style
4. Name was derived from the French word rocaille, or pebble
5. Rejected strict geometrical patterns and had a fondness for curves; it liked to follow the wandering lines of natural objects, such as seashells and flowers
6. Made much use of interlaced designs colored in gold with delicate contours and graceful curves
7. Its lightness and charm spoke of the pursuit of pleasure, happiness, and love
8. Its decorative work could easily be used with Baroque architecture
9. Focused on the nobility

Neoclassicism

1. A late-eighteenth-century artistic movement that emerged in France. It sought to recapture the dignity and simplicity of the classical style of ancient Greece and Rome
2. Continued to maintain a strong appeal and in the late eighteenth century emerged in France as an established movement
3. Neoclassical artists wanted to recapture the dignity and simplicity of the classical style of ancient Greece and Rome
4. Artists were influenced by the recent excavations of the ancient Roman cities of Herculaneum and Pompeii
5. Classical elements are evident in the work of Jacques-Louis David

Rise of the opera and oratorio, the sonata, the concerto, and the symphony

1. The Italians were the first to develop these genres but were soon followed by the Germans, Austrians, and English
2. As in previous centuries, most musicians depended on a patron—a prince, a well-endowed ecclesiastic, or an aristocrat. The many individual princes, archbishops, and bishops, each with his own court, provided the patronage that made Italy and Germany the musical leaders of Europe.

Baroque musical style

1. vigorous rhythm (gives the music strong drive); continuous melody; dissonance (used more to demonstrate expressiveness); terraced dynamics (either loud or soft)
2. The techniques were perfected by two composers—Bach and Handel—who stand out as musical geniuses

the classical era (1750-1830)

1. Represented by two great innovators—Haydn and Mozart
-Their renown caused the musical center of Europe to shift from Italy and Germany to the Austrian Empire

The novel

1. Literary genre that grew out of the medieval romances and the picaresque stories of the sixteenth century
2. The English are credited with establishing the modern novel as the chief vehicle for fiction writing
3. The novel was open to much experimentation (no rules)
4. It also proved especially attractive to women readers and women writers
5. French word for new

high culture

1. the literary and artistic culture of the educated and wealthy ruling classes
2. By the eighteenth century, European high culture consisted of a learned world of theologians, scientists, philosophers, intellectuals, poets, and dramatists, for whom Latin remained a truly international language
3. Their work was supported by a wealthy and literate lay group, the most important of whom were the landed aristocracy and the wealthier upper classes in the cities

popular culture

1. As opposed to high culture, the unofficial written and unwritten culture of the masses, much of which was traditionally passed down orally and centered on public and group activities such as festivals
2. In the modern age, the term refers to the entertainment, recreation, and pleasures that people purchase as part of the mass consumer society
3. refers to the written and unwritten literature and the social activities and pursuits that are fundamental to the lives of most people
4. The distinguishing characteristic of popular culture is its collective and public nature
5. popular culture was for everyone
6. between 1500 and 1800, the nobility, clergy, and bourgeoisie had abandoned popular culture to the lower classes
7. always included a vast array of traditional songs and stories that were passed down from generation to generation

Developement of magazines for the general public

1. Great Britain was an important center for new magazines
-saw 25 periodicals published in 1700, 103 in 1760, and 158 in 1780

Joseph Addison and Richard Steele's Spectator

1. One of the best known magazines
2. Its goal was "to bring Philosophy out of the closets and libraries, schools and colleges, to dwell in clubs and assemblies, at tea-tables and coffeehouses"
3. the Spectator wished to instruct and entertain at the same time
4. had a strong appeal to women
5. Some of the new magazines were aimed specifically at women, such as The Female Spectator in England, which was also edited by a woman, Eliza Haywood, and featured articles by female writers

Daily newspapers

1. The first was printed in London in 1702, but by 1780, thirty-seven other English towns had their own newspapers
2. Filled with news and special features, they were relatively cheap and were provided free in coffeehouses

Universities

1. These European schools tended to be elitist, designed to meet the needs of the children of the upper classes of society
2. European secondary schools perpetuated the class hierarchy of Europe rather than creating avenues for social mobility
3. Most of the philosophes reinforced the belief that education should function to keep people in their own social class
4. The curriculum of these secondary schools still largely concentrated on the Greek and Latin classics with little attention paid to mathematics, the sciences, and modern languages
5. In Germany, the first Realschule was opened in Berlin in 1747 and offered modern languages, geography, and bookkeeping to prepare boys for careers in business
-schools of this kind were also created for upper-class girls, although they focused primarily on religion and domestic skill
6. The most common complaint about universities, especially from the philosophes, was the old-fashioned curriculum that emphasized the classics and Aristotelian philosophy and provided no training in the sciences or modern languages
-this criticism led to reforms that introduced new ideas in the areas of physics, astronomy, and even mathematics into the universities
--very few of the important scientific discoveries of the eighteenth century occurred in the universities

What instruments did courts use to obtain confessions in criminal cases?

Courts used the rack, thumbscrews, and other instruments to obtain confessions in criminal cases

What England did with criminals

1. Sent criminals as indentured servants to colonies in the New World and, after the American Revolution, to Australia
2. Death penalty

capital punishment

1. The legally authorized killing of someone as punishment for a crime
2. Was harmful to society because it set an example of barbarism:
-"Is it not absurd that the laws, which detest and punish homicide, should, in order to prevent murder, publicly commit murder themselves?"

prison

1. criminals were placed in cells and subjected to discipline and regular work to rehabilitate them
2. began to replace the public spectacle of barbarous punishments

practitioner

1. practiced medicine

physicians

1. high status; at the top
2. A graduate with a doctorate in medicine from a university needed to receive a license before he could be a practicing member of the physicians' elite corporate body
3. In England, the Royal College of Physicians licensed only one hundred physicians in the early eighteenth century
4. Only officially licensed physicians could hold regular medical consultations with patients and receive payments, already regarded in the eighteenth century as outrageously high

surgeons

1. under the status of physicians
2. known as barber-surgeons well into the eighteenth century from their original dual occupation
3. primary functions were to bleed patients and perform surgery; the latter was often done crudely, without painkillers and in filthy conditions, because there was no understanding of anesthesia or infection
4. Bleeding was widely believed to be beneficial in reducing fevers and combating a variety of illnesses
5. In the 1740s, they began to separate themselves from the barbers and organize their own guilds
6. started to undergo additional training by dissecting corpses and studying anatomy more systematically
7. distinction between physicians and surgeons began to break down, and surgeons were examining patients in a fashion similar to physicians by the end of the century

Festival

1. a broad name used to cover a variety of celebrations: community festivals in Catholic Europe that celebrated the feast day of the local patron saint; annual festivals, such as Christmas and Easter, that went back to medieval Christianity; and Carnival, the most spectacular form of festival, which was celebrated in Spain, Italy, France, Germany, and Austria
2. All of these festivals were special occasions when people ate, drank, and celebrated to excess
3. In traditional societies, festival was a time for relaxation and enjoyment because much of the rest of the year was a time of unrelieved work

Carnival

1. was celebrated in the weeks leading up to the beginning of Lent, the forty-day period of fasting and purification preceding Easter
2. a time of great indulgence, just the reverse of Lent, when people were expected to abstain from meat, sex, and most recreations
3. Hearty consumption of food, especially meat and other delicacies, and heavy drinking were the norm during Carnival; so was intense sexual activity
4. Songs with double meanings that would be considered offensive at other times could be sung publicly at this time of year
5. Carnival was a time of aggression, a time to release pent-up feelings

taverns

1. Functioned as regular gathering places for neighborhood men to talk, play games, conduct small business matters, and drink
2. In some countries, the favorite drinks of poor people, such as gin in England and vodka in Russia, proved devastating as poor people regularly drank themselves into oblivion
3. Gin was cheap; the classic sign in English taverns, "Drunk for a penny, dead drunk for two pence," was literally true

chapbooks

1. short brochures sold by itinerant peddlers to the lower classes
2. contained both spiritual and secular material: lives of saints and inspirational stories competed with crude satires and adventure stories

Volkschulen

1. In the Habsburn Austrian Empire, a system of state supported primary schools
2. Only one in four school-age children actually attended

Toleration Patent of 1781

1. Joseph II of Austria said that Catholic had public practice and granted Lutherans, Calvinists and Greek Orthodox the right to worship privately.
2. All equal
3. Did not allow peoples to worship openly, only consciously

Jews

1. Despised religious minority of Europe
2. Ashkenazic Jews were the largest number of Jews
-They lived in eastern Europe
3. They were restricted in their movements, forbidden to own land or hold many jobs, forced to pay burdensome special taxes, and also subject to periodic outbusts of popular wrath
4. The Austrian emperor Joseph II attempted to adopt a new policy toward the Jews
-it too was limited but it freed Jews from nuisance taxes and allowed them more freedom of movement and job opportunities but they were still restricted from owning land and worshiping in public
-Joseph II encouraged Jews to learn German and work toward greater assimilation into Austrian society

Pogrom

1. Violent attacks on a Jewish community
2. Jewish communities were looted and massacred
3. Made Jewish existence precarious and dependent on the favor of their territorial rulers.

Sephardic Jews

1. expelled from Spain in the fifteenth century
2. many migrated to Turkish lands, some had settled in cities, such as Amsterdam, Venice, London, and Frankfurt, where they were relatively free to participate in the banking and commercial activities that Jews had practiced since the Middle Ages
3. highly successful ones came to provide valuable services to rulers, especially in central Europe, where they were known as the court Jews
-even these Jews were insecure because their religion set them apart from the Christian majority and served as a catalyst to social resentment

Natural Religion

1. Based upon reason and ordinary experience rather than upon Divine Revelation

The Catholic parish church

1. Remained an important center of life for the entire community
2. 90 to 95 percent of Catholic populations did go to Mass on Easter Sunday, one of the church's most special celebrations
3. Catholic religiosity proved highly selective
4. much popular devotion was still directed to an externalized form of worship focusing on prayers to saints, pilgrimages, and devotion to relics and images
-bothered many clergymen, who felt that their parishioners were "more superstitious than devout," as one Catholic priest put it

Pietism

1. A movement that arose in Germany in the seventeenth century whose goal was to foster a personal experience of God as the focus of true religious experience
2. A response to this desire for a deeper personal devotion to God
3. Begun in the seventeenth century by a group of German clerics who wanted their religion to be more personal, Pietism was spread by the teachings of Count Nikolaus von Zinzendorf

Methodism

1. A religion founded by John Wesley
2. Insisted strict self-discipline and a methodical approach to religious study and observance
3. Emphasized an intense personal salvation and a life of thrift, abstinence, and hard work
4. Was an important revival of Christianity and proved that the need for spiritual experience had not been expunged by the eighteenth-century search for reason

Physiocrats

1. This was the group of economists who believed that the wealth of a nation was derived solely from the value of its land

natural law

1. God's or nature's law that defines right from wrong and is higher than human law

encyclopedia

1. Denis Diderot helped create and edit this book that represented the entire knowledge base and school of thought for the Enlightenment
2. Advocated the ideas of the Enlightenment

individual liberty

1. The liberty of an individual to exercise freely those rights generally accepted as being outside of governmental control.

General Will

1. A concept in political philosophy referring to the desire or interest of a people as a whole
2. As used by Jean-Jacques Rousseau, who championed the concept, the general will is identical to the rule of law.

The four genres of classical music

1. Medieval
2. Renaissance
3. Baroque
4. Classical/Romantic