Social Psychology & Personality

Based on 2024-25 CED

social psychology

the study of how we think about, influence, and relate to one another

attribution theory

the theory that we can explain someone’s behavior by crediting either the situation or the person’s disposition

fundamental attribution error

tendency for observers to underestimate the impact of a situation and overestimate the impact on a person’s disposition on their behavior; strongest in those we do not have a relationship with and in individualist societies

attribution tendencies

we tend to attribute our admirable actions to our disposition and vice versa; we tend to attribute the actions of our younger selves to disposition

attitude

feelings, often influenced by our beliefs, that predispose us to respond in a particular way to objects, people, and events; can be overrode by external influences

peripheral route persuasion

people are influenced by incidental cues such as the speaker’s attractiveness or a product’s endorsements

central route persuasion

people influenced by arguments and facts and respond with favorable thoughts; works best for analytical and well-informed people

foot-in-the-door phenomenon

tendency for people who have first agreed to a small request to comply later with a large request; over time our attitudes follow our behavior and doing becomes believing

door-in-the-face phenomenon

tendency to agree to a smaller, more reasonable request after first denying a larger, unreasonable one; similar to haggling

cognitive dissonance theory

the theory that we act to reduce the discomfort we feel when our thoughts are inconsistent with each other or our actions; if our attitudes and actions clash we are more likely to change our attitude

role

the norms of a social position that define how one should behave

Stanford Prison Experiment

showed that we will act how we believe we are supposed to based on an assigned role

norms

the understood rules for accepted and expected behavior; determines what is “proper”

social contagion

we tend to do and think as our social group does

Chameleon Effect

unconsciously mimicking others’ expressions, postures, and vocal tone; helps us feel empathy

mood contagion

our tendency to feel the emotion of who/whatever we’re listening to

conformity

adjusting our behavior and/or thinking to coincide with a group standard

factors that increase conformity

• feeling incompetent/insecure

• being in a group (>2 people)

• being in a unanimous group

• admiring a group’s status/attractiveness

• no prior commitment to a response

• fear of judgement

• culture that emphasizes respect for social norms

normative social influence

influence resulting from a person’s desire to gain approval or avoid disapproval

informational social influence

influence resulting from one’s willingness to accept others’ opinions about reality

conformity and collectivism

rates of conformity are higher in collectivist societies than individualist ones

obedience

Millgram’s obedience experiments showed most people will obey authority to the point even of killing others

factors that increase obedience

• the authority figure is close at hand

• the authority figure is perceived to be a legitimate authority

• the authority figure is supported by a powerful/prestigious institution

• the victim is depersonalized

• there is no model for defiance

obedience trends

those who are going to resist are the minority and will do so early on; obedience will often outweigh morality/ethics

minority influence

the power of a few individuals to sway majorities

social facilitation

the presence of others increases our most likely response to a task; caused by arousal in other’ presence

social loafing

the tendency for people in a group to exert less effort when pooling their efforts toward attaining a common goal than when individually accountable

causes of social loafing

• feeling less accountable

• viewing contributions as dispensable

• overestimating own contributions

• viewing it as a free ride on others’ efforts

deindividuaiton

the loss of self-awareness and self-restraint occurring in group situations that foster arousal and anonymity

group polarization

the enhancement of a group’s prevailing inclinations through discussion within the group; exacerbated by echo chambers in the internet

groupthink

the mode of thinking that occurs when the desire for harmony in a decision-making group overrides a realistic appraisal of alternatives; fed watergate, chernobyl, war on terror, etc.

conflict

incompatability of actions, goals, or ideas

culture

the enduring behaviors, ideas, attitudes, values, and traditions shared by a group of people and transmitted from one generation to the next; establishes norms that change over time and location

prejudice

an unjustifiable attitude towards a group and its members; involves stereotypes, negative emotion, and discrimination

stereotype

a generalized belief about a group of people; fueled by availability heuristic

discrimination

unjustifiable negative behavior toward a group; can be implicit or explicit

just-world phenomenon

tendency for people to believe the world is just and people get what the deserve and deserve what they get

ingroup

“us” → the people we share a common identity with

ingroup bias

tendency to favor those in our own group

outgroup

“them” → those perceived as different or apart from our ingroups

scapegoat theory

theory that prejudice offers an outlet for anger by providing someone to blame

evidence for the scapegoat theory

• economically frustrated people tend to express heightened prejudice

• in experiments, temporary frustration was shown to intensify prejudice

other-race effect

tendency to recall faces of one’s own race more accurately than faces of other races

classifying racially ambiguous faces

we tend to classify mixed race faces according to their other identity because we are drawn to the distinguishing features

ethnocentrism

belief that your own ethnic group is superior and thus others are inferior

aggression

any physical or verbal behavior intended to harm someone physically or emotionally

frustration-aggression principle

the principle that frustration creates anger which can create aggression

frustration

the blocking of an attempt to achieve some goal

social script

culturally modeled guide for how to act in various situations

proximity

geographic nearness; tends to breed liking over time

mere exposure effect

phenomenon that repeated exposure to novel stimuli increases liking of them

physical attractiveness

the most influential factor in first impressions; unrelated to self esteem; as we grow to love someone they become more attractive

similarity

opposites do not attract, we are more likely to be attracted to those similar to us

Sternberg’s 3 components of love

intimacy, passion, & commitment

passionate love

aroused state of intense positive absorption in another; combination of physical arousal and cognitive appraisal; often occurs at the beginning of a romantic relationship

companionate love

deep affectionate attachment we feel for those with whom our lives are intertwined; driven by the release of oxytocin in the person’s presence

equity

in a relationship, you get what you give

self-disclosure

revealing intimate aspects of yourself to others; builds as each person opens up

reward theory of attraction

people develop strong relationships with those with whom they have positive, fulfilling interactions, particularly when the benefits gained do not require much in return

altruism

unselfish regard for the welfare of others

bystander effect

the tendency for any given bystander to be less likely to give aid if other bystanders are present; increased by inattention and diffusion of responsibility

social exchange theory

the theory that our social behavior is an exchange process, aiming to maximize benefits and minimize costs

reciprocity norm

an expectation that people will help, not hurt those who have helped them; this is where “paying it forward” comes from

social-responsibility norm

an expectation that people will help those needing their help; often encouraged by religions

conflict

a perceived incompatibility of actions, goals, or ideas

social trap

a situation in which the conflicting parties, by each pursuing their self-interest rather than the good of the group, become caught in mutually destructive behavior

mirror-image perceptions

mutual views, often held by conflicting people, as when each side views itself as ethical and peaceful and views the other side as evil and aggressive

self-fulfilling prophecy

belief that leads to its own fultillment

superordinate goals

shared goals that override differences and require cooperation

Graduated & Reciprocated Initiatives in Tension Reduction (GRIT)

a strategy designed to decrease international tensions by encouraging a side to initiate conciliation, thus initiating the reciprocity norm to lead to an agreement

factors that promote peace

• positive contact to increase understanding

• cooperation such as through superordinate goals

• communication, especially with a 3rd party mediator

• conciliation, particularly using GRIT

personality

an individual’s characteristic pattern of thinking, feeling, and acting

psychodynamic theories of personality

theories that view personality with a focus on the unconscious and the importance of childhood experiences; descended from Freud’s psychoanalysis

psychoanalysis (theory)

Freud’s theory of personality that attributes thoughts and actions to unconscious motives and conflicts

psychoanalysis (technique)

the techniques used in treating psychological disorders by seeking to expose and interpret unconscious tensions

Freud’s unconscious

resevoir of mostly unacceptable thoughts, wishes, feelings, and memories

contemporary unconscious

information processing that happens outside our conscious awareness

free association

a method of exploring the unconscious in which the person relaxes and says whatever comes to mind, no matter how trivial or embarassing; Freud believed painful unconscious memories could be retrieved this way

Id

reservoir of unconscious psychic energy that strives to satisfy basic sexual and aggressive drives; operates on the pleasure principle

pleasure principle

demanding immediate gratification

Ego

largely conscious “executive” part that mediates the demands of the Id, superego, and reality; operates on the reality principle

reality principle

gratifying the id’s impulses in realistic ways that bring long-term pleasure, rather than pain

superego

represents internalized ideals and provides standards for judgement and future aspirations

defense mechanisms

the ego’s protective methods of reducing anxiety by unconsciously distorting reality

repression

basic defense mechanism that banishes anxiety-arousing thoughts, feelings, and memories from consciousness; eg. not having knowledge of childhood abuse while still struggling with relationships as a result

regression

retreating to an earlier psychosexual stage where some psychic energy remains fixated; eg. sleeping in bed with a parent when you are stressed/sad/scared

reaction formation

switching unacceptable impulses into opposites; eg. teasing someone you have a crush on

projection

disguising one’s own threatening impulses by attributing them to others; eg. accusing your spouse of infidelity when you’re the one cheating

rationalization

offering self-justifying explanations in place of the real, more threatening unconscious reasons for one’s actions; eg. claiming you didn’t want to go to a school after being rejected from it

displacement

shifting sexual or aggressive impulses toward a more acceptable or less threatening object or person; eg. being mean to a sibling after a bad day at school

sublimation

transferring of unacceptable impulses into socially valued motives; eg. working out when you’re angry at someone

denial

refusing to believe or even percieve painful realities; eg. an addict claiming they don’t have a problem

compensation

emphasizing a strength in one area of life to distract from inadequacy elsewhere; eg. focusing on honing artistic ability when struggling academically

collective unconscious

shared inherited reservoir of memory traces from our species’ history

projective test

a personality test that provides ambiguous images designed to trigger projection of one’s inner dynamics

Thematic Apperception Test (TAT)

a projective test in which people express their inner feelings and interests through the stories they make up about ambiguous stories

Rorschach Inkblot Test

projective test where people interpret a set of ten inkblots, revealing their own inner feelings

false consensus effect

we tend to overestimate how much others share our beliefs and behaviors

terror-management theory

theory of death-related anxiety; explores emotional and behavioral responses to reminders of their impending death

humanistic theories of personality

theories that view personality with a focus on the potential for healthy personal growth