Evolution and Biodiversity

state the taxonomic classification, in hierarchical order

1. kingdom

2. phylum

3. class

4. order

5. family

6. genus

7. species

mnemonic to memorize taxonomic order

“keep ponds clean or fish get sick”

outline how we determine the scientific name for species using a bionomial system

genus+species

describe what natural classification is and how scientists use natural classification to classify new species

• is how scientists aim to classify species in a way that reflects evolutionary paths

• scientists look at a species’ ancestry and compare it to those species who have similar traits

state the three domains of life

• bacteria

• archaea

• eukarya

state the six different phylum of the animal kingdom

• porifera

• cnidaria

• platyhelminthes

• annelida

• mollusca

• arthopoda

state three traits of the porifera

• no segmentation

• no symmetry

• no mouth or anus

state three traits of the cnidaria

• no segmentation

• radial symmetry

• has mouth; no anus

state three traits of the platyhelminthes

• no segmentation

• bilateral symmetry

• has mouth; no anus

state three traits of the annelida

• very segmented

• bilateral symmetry

• mouth & anus

state three traits of the mollusca

• not visible (segmented)

• bilateral symmetry

• mouth & anus

state three traits of the arthropoda

• segmented

• bilateral symmetry

• mouth & anus

state five major vertebrate classes

• amphibians

• reptiles

• birds

• mammals

• fish

state three traits of amphibians

• soft skin permeable to water

• lungs with moist skin

• pentedactyl limbs

state three traits of reptiles

• skin with scales impermeable to water

• lungs with extensive folding

• pentedactyl limbs

state three traits of birds

• skin with feathers

• lungs with air sacs

• pentedactyl limbs

state three traits of mammals

• skin with hair follicles

• lungs with alveali

• pentedactyl limbs

state three traits of fish

• bony scales

• breathe via gills

• no limbs

state what louis pasteur proved

designed an experiment to show that cells can only arise from pre-existing cells

outline how pasteur set up his experiment

1. the first swan-necked flask was filled with nutrient broth and boiled

   • boiling killed any bacteria and the swan neck kept any unwanted organisms from entering

2. the second flask was also boiled but had a broken neck that allowed free air

outline what the results were from pasteurs experiment

after some time passed, he observed micro-bacterial growth in the flask with the broken neck

• the broken neck had allowed micro-organisms to enter freely into the nutrient broth

• he was able to deduce that organisms in the atmosphere had colonized the open flask and that growth was not spontaneous as people at the time had believed

state what are 4 complex structures needed to be present for life to form and explain why they’re necessary

1. carbon compounds (amino acids, fatty acids)

   • must be produced as they are they are the building blocks in life

2. carbon compounds must assemble into polymers (polysaccharides, proteins)

   • without polymers it won’t be possible to build complex molecules such as DNA or proteins to be replicated

3. membranes must be formed

   • a phospholipids bilayer must be present for all cells to be formed

   • without one a cell won’t be able to maintain homeostasis nor be able to shield itself from unwanted materials

   • as well as let any chemical properties occur.

4. mechanism of inheritance

   • RNA is most likely to occur as it can self-replicate and act as a catalyst to speed up the polymerization of proteins

state what the urey-miller experiment observed

their experiment successfully synthesized amino acids from inorganic components

outline how the urey-miller experiment was carried out and outline the results

they built a closed system containing a heated pool of water and a mix of gases. they sent electricity sparks to simulate lightning.

• although they were successful in creating monomers (carbohydrates, amino acids) there was no possible way to create large molecules (DNA, proteins)

define endosymbiosis

is described as how the eukaryotic cell arrived via endocytosis

describe how the first eukaryotic cells were developed via endosymbiosis

• a large prokaryotic cell engulfed a smaller cell but instead of digesting it, the large cell allowed it to live in symbiosis

• the large cell provided protection while the smaller provided energy

state what features of the chloroplast and mitochondria suggest they evolved from prokaryotes

they both have:

• double membranes

• smaller ribosomes (70S)

• circular DNA

• replicate via binary fission

define evolution

the gradual change in the heritable characteristics of species over time

define natural selection

how organisms better adapt to their environment tend to survive and produce more offspring

define fossil records

sequence of related species and sequence of changes within the species

• it provides evidence for evolution

• scientists can determine the age of fossils via fossil record

define selective breeding

deliberate breeding of organisms to obtain or continue a favorable trait done by humans

• the practice shows that heritable characteristics in a species can change over time

define homologous structures

similar structures in different species that have different functions due to common ancestry

define analogous structures

different structures but similar function due to convergent traits

define adaptive radiation

diversification of species into several related species

• homologous structures are the result of adaptive radiation

• this typically occurs when the environment changes, creating new needs for organisms to fill

define speciation

occurs when a single species evolves into a separate species

define gradual convergence

change in environment or location that leads to speciation

define industrial melanism and describe the peppered moth

occurs in species in response to increased levels of pollution in the environment

• increases in sulfur dioxide and soot changes the surface of trees forcing the peppered moths to adapt and change

explain how genetic variation between individuals of a species can be generated

variation can be shown via meiosis, sexual reproduction, and mutation

• meiosis: provides new combinations of alleles, which vary in each off spring

• sexual reproduction: allows for new combinations of traits in an organism from the two parents

• mutation: are changes in genetic code. a codon can either be switched out or added in.

define adaptions

are traits that make an individual better suited to its environment

explain how natural selection can cause traits such as drought resistance to develop in wild plants

after generations the plant will learn how to better adapt to its environment

• this then leads to traits being favorable so a plants offspring can survive for a much longer period

• these favorable traits are advantageous because then an organism has a better chance at survival

define antibiotics

chemicals that are used to kill or inhibit the growth of bacteria

• they are used to control infection by pathogenic cells

state what antibiotics target

• DNA

• cell wall

• proteins

define antibiotic resistance

when bacteria are able to respond to changes in their environment and are capable of evolving resistance to antibiotics

define overproduction in natural selection

when species tend to produce far more individuals than can survive in maturity

describe natural selection in overproduction of organisms

species tend to compete with each other for survival as well as territory, mating, and food.

• those that obtain these tend to survive and produce more offspring

• those that are less adapted tend to die off or produce fewer offspring

define cladistics

a system of classifying organisms based on shared characteristics from common ancestry

define clades

a group of organisms that evolved from a common ancestor and are related

define cladogram

tree diagrams that show the most probable sequence of divergence in clades

define “root” in cladograms

the initial ancestor common to all organisms with the cladogram

define “node” in cladograms

a hypothetical ancestor that speciated to give rise to two daughter taxa

state what evidence can be used on caldograms

1. quantifying different traits between a set of organisms

2. DNA or amino acid sequence

3. DNA mutations

   • DNA can be used as a molecular clock to observe changes in DNA sequences

define reclassification and state the importance of it

it is when scientists regroup species due to an incorrect placement in a cladogram

• it can lead to more accurate information/research