AP EURO TIMELINE

1347–1351 – Black Death

Plague that killed ⅓ of all Europeans; weakened feudalism and increased social mobility. _ killed ⅓ of all Europeans and weakened feudalism.

Feudalism

Medieval social system → land for loyalty between king, nobles, and peasants. _ was the medieval social system in that land was given for loyalty.

1378–1417 – Great Schism

Two popes (later three) split the Church, each claiming to be the true pope. Weakened papal prestige. During the _, two or three popes split the Church.

Papal Prestige

Power and respect of the pope, weakened by corruption and conflicts like the Great Schism. _ refers to the power and respect of the pope.

Francesco Petrarch

Known as the “Father of Humanism.” Revived classical Greek and Roman texts and emphasized secular learning.

Humanism

Renaissance belief in human potential, education, classics, and secular life.

1453 – End of Hundred Years’ War (1337-1453)

Long war between England and France ends. France becomes more united and grows nationalism. Joan of Arc helped lead the French to victory and inspired French Pride

War of Roses

A civil war in England between two royal families, The Lancasters and the Yorks, finally ended when Henry Tudor (a Lancaster) became king, started the Tudor dynasty

1455 – Invention of the Printing Press

Invented by Johannes Gutenberg. Revolutionized access to books; spread humanism and Reformation ideas.

1452–1519 – Leonardo da Vinci

Renaissance man — artist (Mona Lisa, The Last Supper), scientist, and inventor.

The Last Supper

Religious painting showing Jesus and disciples; noted for realism and composition.

1469–1527 – Machiavelli

Wrote The Prince — argued that rulers should be feared more than loved if necessary.

The Prince

Political guidebook on how rulers should act; emphasized pragmatism and secular rule.

1475–1564 – Michelangelo

Sculptor and painter. Created David and painted the ceiling of the Sistine Chapel.

Sistine Chapel

Fresco of biblical scenes; symbol of Renaissance art and Church patronage.

David

Sculpture representing the ideal humanist man.

1492 – Columbus’s Voyage

Sailed for Spain; “discovered” the Americas, launching the Columbian Exchange.

Columbian Exchange

Global trade of crops, animals, people (slavery), and diseases between Europe and the Americas post-1492.

1517 – Martin Luther

Posted 95 Theses criticizing Church corruption, especially indulgences. Sparked Protestant Reformation.

Protestant Reformation

Religious movement challenging the Catholic Church’s practices (e.g. simony(buying and selling of church offices), nepotism, pluralism (holding of multiple positions), indulgences). Led to creation of Protestant branches.

1521 – Diet of Worms

Luther refused to recant; was declared an outlaw but protected by German princes.

1534 – Henry VIII’s Act of Supremacy

Created the Church of England after the Pope refused his annulment (his wife was the Pope’s aunt). Married Anne Boleyn after splitting from the Catholic Church.

1536 – John Calvin

Published Institutes of the Christian Religion; created Calvinism.

Calvinism

Branch of Protestantism; emphasized predestination (salvation predetermined) and strict morality. Appealed to the middle class and merchants.

1545–1563 – Council of Trent

Catholic Church’s response to Reformation. Reaffirmed Catholic doctrine but ended some abuses. Strengthened discipline, education for clergy, and clarified teachings.

1555 – Peace of Augsburg

Treaty between Holy Roman Empire and German princes. Allowed each prince to choose Lutheranism or Catholicism for their territory. Marked a temporary end to religious wars in Germany.

Catholicism

Branch of Christianity loyal to the Pope; reformed during the Counter-Reformation.

Lutheranism

First Protestant faith; emphasized salvation by faith alone, Bible as sole authority.

1562- 1594 – French Civil Wars

A series of religious wars in France between three powerful families: The Huguenot Bourbons, The Catholic Guise family, and the ruling Valois Family (who opposed Guises). Henry IV (Henry of Navarre) became aware and ended the war by granting Protestant religious freedom.

St. Bartholomew’s Day Massacre (1572)

Catholic mobs killed thousands of Huguenots (French Protestants), making the conflict worse. Related to the French civil war

War of Three Henry’s

A power struggle between Henry or Guis, Henry III (Valois king) and Henry of Navarre (Bourbon)

Henry of Navarre (Bourbon) won becoming Henry IV

1598 – Edict of Nantes

Law that allowed Huguenots to worship freely in certain areas: Brings peace to France.0

Huguenots

French Protestants influenced by the teachings of John Calvin; they faced severe persecution by the Catholic majority, especially during the French Wars of Religion.

1600 – Dutch East India Company established

A powerful Trading Company started by the Netherlands. It was one of the first multinational corporations and helped the Dutch control the global trade and built colonies. Dominated trade in Asia, especially spices and helped make the Netherlands a major economic power.

1618–1648 – Thirty Years’ War

Major was in the HRE that started over religion (protestant vs Catholic) but became a political power struggle across Europe. Bagan because of the Peace of Augsburg (1555) did not recognize Calvinism leading to ongoing religious tension.

Bohemian chose Calvinism but HRE Emperor Ferdinand II wanted Catholicism. The conflict began when Protestant the imperial officials out the window (Defenestration of Prague). Protestant were defeated

France (Catholic joined Sweden (Protestant) to fight Habsburg Austria and Spain to weaken their power.

1648 – Treaty of Westphalia

Ended the Thirty Years’ War. Established state sovereignty — each state controls its own affairs without outside interference. First time they recognized Calvinism.

1642–1649 – English Civil War

A war between King CharlesI and Parliament over power and Authority. Parliament won and Charles I was executed

James I (1603-1625)

Took the throne after Elizabeth I. Believed in divine rights of kings, clashed with parliament and Puritans. Unlike Elizabeth he refused to share power

Charles I (1625-1649)

James I’s son, continued to fight with Parliament and ruled alone from 1629-1640. Tried to force Scottish Presbyteruans to use the Anglican Book of Common Prayers, leading to a Scottish revolt →Needed money to fight so he called Parliament but the demanded limits to his power. In 1641 he tried to arrest Parliament members sparking civil war Two sides: Cavaliers (supported the king) VS RoundHeads (supported parliament). Parliament split: Radical Puritans wanted to abolish monarchy, Presbyterians wanted to keep the king.

→ Radicals won, formed the Rump Parliament, and put Charles I on trial for treason, He was executed in 1649

Oliver Cromwell (1649-1658)

A part of Parliament, led the army and abolished the monarchy creating the Commonwealth

→ Took power after Charles I’s death Suppressed uprisings in Ireland and Scotland by Ruling as a military dictator, not a democratic leader In 1653, named himself “Lord Protector”( Get a load of this guy) Died in 1658, His rule was unpopular so Parliament restored the monarchy

Charles II (1660-1685)

Restored as King, Worked with Parliament at first but conflict returned. Parlimnet passed anti-Puritan and anti-Catholic laws to strengthen the Angelican church. Charles suspended laws against Catholics and Protestants

→ Parliament passed the Test Act, No Catholics in Public offices (to block James and Charle’s Catholic brother, from power) Charles dissolved Parliament

James II (1685-1688)

Openly Catholic king who appointed Catholics to power. Parliament disliked him but tolerated him until he had a Catholic son in 1688.

→ Thus threatening a continuation of Catholic rule

1643–1715 – Louis XIV (“Sun King”)

Absolutist monarch of France. Centralized power via bureaucracy and patronage. Built the Palace of Versailles; required nobles to live there to reduce their power. Supported mercantilism and trade to strengthen France’s economy.

1687 – Isaac Newton

Wrote Principia Mathematica; formulated laws of motion and gravity. Key figure of Scientific Revolution.

The Glorious Revolution (1688)

Parliament invited William of Orange (James’s Protestant son-in-law/nephew) and Marry (james’s Protestant daughter) to take the throne

→ William was Jame’s sister’s son and William married his cousin, James Daughter T^T James II Fled to France, no war happened so it was “glorious” Wiliam and Mary signed the Bill of rights which game parliament more power and established a constitutional

Monarchy Toleration Act

Allowed Protestants (like Puritans) to worship publicly and included Catholics

1689 – English Bill of Rights

Guaranteed rights like trial by jury and right to bear arms; confirmed Parliamentary supremacy over monarchy.

Galileo Galilei (1610s)

Used telescope to support heliocentrism (sun-centered universe); condemned by Church.

Heliocentrism

First proposed by Copernicus; challenged geocentric (earth-centered) Church doctrine.

1756–1763 – Seven Years’ War

A global war involving most major powers. Britain allied with Prssia while France allied with Austria and Russia. Continuation of the War of Austrian Succession Austria vs Prussia: Fighting for dominance in the HRE Britain and France: Competing for global colonies and trade, especially in North America and India Called the French and Indian War in NA Diplomatic Revolution: Austria & France, Prussia and Britain where former enemies with each other Shows how states prioritized winning wars over old alliances

1763 – Treaty of Paris

The peace treaty that ended the Seven Years war. Britain became the dominant colonial power gaining: French Canada and other NA territories New key holdings in India Prussia Kept Silesia and remained strong in Europe, France lost most of its overseas empire

1776 – American Revolution begins

Colonists rebelled against British rule. Causes: taxation without representation, Proclamation of 1763, Boston Massacre, Intolerable Acts.

Boston Massacre

British troops killed colonists during protest.

Intolerable Acts

Punitive British laws in response to the Boston Tea Party.

1776 – Adam Smith

Published Wealth of Nations; advocated capitalism, free markets, and limited government interference.

1789-1792 – The start of the French Revolution

Inspired by Enlightenment ideals and inequality, Overthrew monarchy and ended feudal privileges Revolution was caused by the old order which made the third estate pay much more tax than any of the other orders. They wanted to stand up for their own liberty, equality and authority. Financial crises due to wars, and lavish cort spendings. Wheat famine caused bread prices to rise, starving the poor. Louis XIV refused to enact tax reforms advised by ministers likely Calonne and Maupeou

Estate General and tennis court oath (1789)

Louis XIV called the Estates General to raise funds, due to each estate only getting on vote unfailingly representing the population, the rich won. →Third estate formed the National assembly after being denied fair voting. They locked themselves in a tennis court until they came to a resolution First mark of defiance against absolute monarchy marking the political beginning of the revolution

Storming of the Bastille (July 14, 1789)

Parisians stormed the Bastille to arm themselves and challenged royal authority

The great fear, (August 1789)

Peasants feared aristocratic plots, attacking nove manors and destroying federal records

Declaration of the Right of Men and Citizen (August 1789)

The National Assembly issued this document proclaiming liberty property, security, and resistance to oppression

1789-1792 – The Liberal phase

Woman;s March on Versailles: Thousands of women marched to demand bread and brought the royal family back to paris

Civil Constitution of the Clergy (July 1790)

The Assembly brought the Catholic Church under state and authority requiring clergy to swear loyalty to the nation.

→ Major shift in divine rights and monarchy to secular, National authority, splitting the revolutionals and the faithful

Constitution of 1791

Established a constitutional monarchy and the Legislative Assembly

Storming of the Tuileries Palace (August 1792)

Revolutionaries arrested the king after a mob invaded the palace ending the monarchy in practice

Execution of Louis XVI: (January 1793)

The king was found guilty of treason after trying to run away and executed.

1793-1792 – Radical Phase/ Reign of Terror (Getting more violent)

Lead by Robospher and Jacobins, executed tens of thousands seen as enemies of the revolution

Republic of Virtue

USed violence to force moral purity

Execution of Robespierre (1794)

Robespierre was arrested and executed m ending the Reign of Terror

1799 – Napoleon Bonaparte rises to power

Became First Consul in 1799 after the coup. Later crowned Emperor in 1804. Conquered much of Europe, implemented the Napoleonic Code, and promoted nationalism.

Napoleonic Code

Legal equality (for men), secular law, meritocracy.

1799 – Napoleon Bonaparte rises to power

Defeated in 1815 at Battle of Waterloo; exiled to Saint Helena.

1815 – Congress of Vienna / Age of Metternich

After Napoleon’s defeat, European powers met to restore the old order. Klemens von Metternich (Austria) was a leading conservative voice. Began the Concert of Europe, which aimed to maintain peace. Key goals: contain France, restore monarchies, and establish a balance of power.

1848 – Revolutions of 1848

Liberal and nationalist uprisings in France, Italy, the German states, and the Austrian Empire. Protested absolute monarchies, demanded constitutions and unification. Most failed due to lack of unity and military suppression, but revealed popular desire for reform.

1848 – Karl Marx & The Communist Manifesto

Written by Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels. Called for the working class (proletariat) to overthrow the bourgeoisie and capitalism. Advocated for a classless, stateless society based on common ownership. Inspired future socialist and communist movements.

1861 – Unification of Italy

Led by Camillo di Cavour (North, diplomacy), Giuseppe Garibaldi (South, military), and King Victor Emmanuel II. Unified various states and kingdoms into the Kingdom of Italy by 1870. Reflected rising nationalism and shift toward constitutional monarchy.

1861 – Emancipation of Serfs in Russia

Tsar Alexander II freed about 23 million serfs. Intended to modernize Russia and prevent unrest. Serfs received limited land and remained economically dependent; reforms were only partly successful.

1871 – Unification of Germany

Engineered by Otto von Bismarck, Chancellor of Prussia. Used wars (against Denmark, Austria, France) to unify German states under Prussian rule. Emphasized Realpolitik and "Blood and Iron" (war and industry). Wilhelm I crowned Kaiser in Versailles — shift in European power balance.

1884 – Berlin Conference / Scramble for Africa

European powers met to divide Africa without African input. Initiated formal colonization — led to imperial rivalries and exploitation. Major part of the New Imperialism wave (1870–1914), driven by resources, markets, and nationalism.

1905 – Russian Revolution of 1905

Triggered by defeat in the Russo-Japanese War, economic crisis, and Bloody Sunday (peaceful protestors shot by tsar's troops). Led to some reforms, like the creation of the Duma (parliament), but autocracy remained intact.

1914–1918 – World War I (WWI)

Militarism (arms race)

1914–1918 – World War I (WWI)

Alliances (Triple Entente vs Triple Alliance)

1914–1918 – World War I (WWI)

Imperialism (competition in Africa, Asia)

1914–1918 – World War I (WWI)

Nationalism (Slavs in Balkans, Alsace-Lorraine)

1914–1918 – World War I (WWI)

Assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand (heir to Austro-Hungarian throne) by Serbian nationalist

1914–1918 – World War I (WWI)

Trench warfare, massive casualties, poison gas.

1914–1918 – World War I (WWI)

War ended with the Treaty of Versailles (1919).

1917 – Bolshevik (Russian) Revolution

Caused by war fatigue, economic hardship, and distrust of the tsar. The February Revolution overthrew Tsar Nicholas II. October Revolution: Lenin and the Bolsheviks seized power. Led to the creation of the USSR, world’s first communist state.

1919 – Treaty of Versailles

Ended WWI. Blamed Germany for the war (War Guilt Clause), imposed reparations, reduced its military, and took territory. Created the League of Nations, but the U.S. did not join. Planted seeds for WWII due to German resentment.

1929 – Great Depression Begins

Global economic collapse sparked by the U.S. stock market crash. Caused mass unemployment, loss of savings, factory closures. The Weimar Republic (Germany) hit hard — helped the rise of extremism (Nazism, Fascism, Communism).

1933 – Hitler Comes to Power in Germany

Promised to revive the economy and restore German pride. Created a totalitarian Nazi state. Anti-Semitic laws, militarization, and aggressive expansion began.

1933 – Hitler Comes to Power in Germany

totalitarian Nazi state. Anti-Semitic laws

1939–1945 – World War II

Started with Germany invading Poland (Sept 1, 1939).

1939–1945 – World War II

Germany, Italy, Japan

1939–1945 – World War II

UK, France, USSR (after 1941), USA (after Pearl Harbor)

1939–1945 – World War II

Key events: Battle of Britain, D-Day, Holocaust, Atomic bombs in Japan.

1939–1945 – World War II

Ended with Germany’s surrender (May 1945) and Japan’s (August 1945).

1945 – Creation of the United Nations

51 nations joined to promote peace, human rights, and development. Based in NYC. Includes Security Council (5 permanent powers with veto: US, UK, France, USSR/Russia, China).

1947–1991 – Cold War

US vs USSR, capitalism vs communism, no direct war, but proxy conflicts:

1947–1991 – Cold War

Korean War, Vietnam War, Afghanistan (1979)

1947–1991 – Cold War

Western military alliance