AP Psych Exam Study Guide

Wilhelm Wundt

german physiologist who founded psychology as a formal science; opened first psychology research laboratory in 1879

Structuralism

an early school of psychology that used introspection to explore the elemental structure of the human mind

Edward Bradford Titchener

Student of Wilhelm Wundt; founder of Structuralist school of psychology.

Functionalism

early school of thought promoted by James and influenced by Darwin; explored how mental and behavioral processes function- how they enable the organism to adapt, survive, and flourish

William James

1842-1910; Field: functionalism; Contributions: studied how humans use perception to function in our environment; Studies: Pragmatism, The Meaning of Truth

Experimental Psychology

the study of behavior and thinking using the experimental method

Margaret Floy Washburn

First female to be awarded a PhD in psychology; 2nd president of the APA (1921)

sport psychologists

study the psychological factors that influence, and are influenced by, participation in sports and other physical activities

clinical psychologists

promote psychological health in individuals, groups, and organizations

community psychologists

deal with broad problems of mental health in community settings

counseling psychologists

help people adjust to life transitions or make lifestyle changes

school psychologists

involved in the assessment of and intervention for children in educational settings

rehabilitation psychologists

work with people who have lost optimal functioning after an accident, illness, or other event

Neuropsychologists

investigate the relationship between neurological processes and behavior

industrial-organizational psychologists

study the relationship between people and their working environments

health psychologists

researchers and practitioners concerned with psychology's contribution to promoting health and preventing disease

forensic psychologists

conduct research on the interface of law and psychology, help to create public policies related to mental health, help law-enforcement agencies in criminal investigations, or consult on jury selection and deliberation processes

social psychologists

study how our beliefs, feelings, and behaviors are affected by and influence other people

psychometric and quantitative psychologists

study the methods and techniques used to acquire psychological knowledge

experimental psychologists

investigate a variety of basic behavioral processes in humans and other animals

educational psychologists

study the relationship between learning and physical and social environments, they develop strategies for enhancing the learning process

developmental psychologists

conduct research on age-related behavioral changes and apply their scientific knowledge to educational, child-care, policy, and related settings

cognitive psychologists

study thought processes and focus on such topics as perception, language, attention, problem solving, memory, judgment and decision making, forgetting, and intelligence

positive psychology

explores positive emotions, character traits, and institutions

psychologists

assess and treat mental, emotional, and behavioral disorders

psychiatrists

deals with psychological disorders

human factors psychology

explore how people and machines interact and how machines and physical environments can be made safe and easy to use

social psychology

explores how we view and affect one another

personality psychology

the study of an individual's characteristic pattern of thinking, feeling, and acting

psychometrics

the scientific study of the measurement of human abilities, attitudes, and traits

social-cultural psychology

how behavior and thinking vary across situations and cultures

psychodynamic

how behavior springs from unconscious drives and conflicts

humanistic psychology

How we meet our needs for love and acceptance and achieve self-fulfillment

evolutionary psychology

how the natural selection of traits has promoted the survival of genes

biological psychology

how the body and brain enable emotions, memories, and sensory experiences, how genes combine with environment

biopsychosocial approach

integrated approach that incorporates biological, psychological, and social-cultural levels of analysis

levels of analysis

differing complementary views

natural selection

proposed by Charles Darwin, the principle that among the range of inherited trait variations, those contributing to reproduction and survival will most likely be passed on to succeeding generations

nature vs nurture issue

controversy over the relative contributions that genes and experience make to the development of psychological traits and behaviors

Ivan Pavlov

discovered classical conditioning; trained dogs to salivate at the ringing of a bell

cognitive neuroscience

the interdisciplinary study of the brain activity linked with cognition (including perception, thinking, memory, and language)

behaviorism

the view that psychology (1) should be an objective science that (2) studies behavior without reference to mental processes. Most research psychologists today agree with (1) but not with (2).

Mary Whiton Calkins

American psychologist who conducted research on memory, personality, and dreams; first woman president of the American Psychological Association

empiricism

the idea that what we know comes from experience, and that observation and experimentation enable scientific knowledge

John Locke

argued that the mind at birth is a blank slate on which experience writes, agreed with Aristotle

Aristotle

argued that knowledge is not preexisting but grows from the experience stored in our memories

Frances Bacon

one of the founders of modern science

Rene Descartes

agreed with Socrates and Plato about the existence of innate ideas and mind's being "entirely distinct from body" and able to survive its death. Surmised that people's brains have "animal spirits" (we now call them nerves).

Socrates and Plato

concluded that the mind is separable from the body and continues after the body dies, and that knowledge is innate.

Hebrew Scholars

linked mind and emotion to the body

Confucious

stressed the power of ideas and of an educated mind

Buddha

pondered how sensations and perceptions combine to form ideas

surprising repetition

a type of coincidence

Ex: multiple members of the same family who are born with the same birthday

simultaneous events

a type of coincidence

Ex: two people who call each other at the same time

parallel lives

type of coincidence

Ex: two people in a small group who share a birthday or unusual name

uncanny patterns

type of coincidence

Ex: picking letters in scrabble that spell your name

unlikely chain of events

a type of coincidence

Ex: losing false teeth overboard and finding them inside a fish you caught 20 years later

B.F. Skinner

Behaviorist that developed the theory of operant conditioning by training pigeons and rats

John Watson

Early behaviorist; famous for the "Little Albert" experiments on fear conditioning

Sigmund Freud

Austrian physician whose work focused on the unconscious causes of behavior and personality formation; founded psychoanalysis.

Carl Rogers

1902-1987; Field: humanistic; Contributions: founded person-centered therapy, theory that emphasizes the unique quality of humans especially their freedom and potential for personal growth, unconditional positive regard, fully functioning person

Abraham Maslow

Humanistic psychologist known for his "Hierarchy of Needs" and the concept of "self-actualization"

descriptive research

describe behaviors , often by using case studies, surveys, or naturalistic observations

Corrrelational Research

associate different factors or variables

experimental research

manipulating variables to discover their effects

case study

an observation technique in which one person is studied in depth in the hope of revealing universal principles

naturalistic observation

observing and recording behavior in naturally occurring situations without trying to manipulate and control the situation

survey

a technique for ascertaining the self-reported attitudes or behaviors of a particular group, usually by questioning a representative, random sample of the group

theory

explains behaviors or events by offering ideas that organize what we have observed

hypothesis

A testable prediction, often implied by a theory

operational definitions

a carefully worded statement of the exact procedures used in a research study

replicate

repeating the essence of a research study, usually with different participants in different situations, to see whether the basic finding extends to other participants and circumstances

correlational methods

associate different factors or variables

sampling bias

a flawed sampling process that produces an unrepresentative sample

population

all those in a group being studied

random sample

a sample that fairly represents a population because each member has an equal chance of inclusion

hindsight bias

the tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that one would have foreseen it

humility

an awareness of our own vulnerability to error and an openness to surprises and new perspectives

critical thinking

doesn't blindly accept arguments and conclusions, but examines assumptions, assesses the source, discerns hidden values, evaluates evidence, and assesses conclusions

schema

mental representations of the world

accomodation

the schema is changed to fit the characteristics of the new object

Jean Piaget

Known for his theory of cognitive development in children

object permanence

the child realizes that objects exist event though they cannot see or touch it (Ex: hiding a tie)

representational thought

children can picture something in their mind (see-do)

egocentric

children under five are unable to understand another person's perspective

sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational, formal operational

Piaget's stages of Cognitive development

Konrad Lorenz

researcher who focused on critical attachment periods in baby birds, a concept he called imprinting

Harry Harlow

1905-1981; Field: development; Contributions: realized that touch is preferred in development; Studies: Rhesus monkeys, studied attachment of infant monkeys (wire mothers v. cloth mothers)

Strange Situation Study

Procedure designed to assess children's attachment on the basis of their use of their mother as a secure base for exploration, their reactions with being left alone with a stranger & then completely alone, & their response when they are reunited with their mother

Mary Ainsworth and John Bowlby

Attachment theory; strange situation experiment

secure, insecure-avoidant, insecure-ambivalent, insecure-disorganized

types of attachment

Judith Rich Harris

argues that parenting did not have a large effect on how the child will eventually behave - peers have a greater impact

authoritarian parenting

style of parenting in which parent is rigid and overly strict, showing little warmth to the child

democratic/authoritative parenting

parents allow their children some input and they are open minded

Permissive (laissez-faire) parenting

children and adolescents have the final say; parents are less controlling and have a nonpunishing, accepting attitude toward children