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Mesopotamians
Civilizations consisting of Sumerians, Akkadians, Babylonians, and Assyrians who spoke Sumerian and Akkadian.
Persians
Civilizations including Achaemenid, Parthian, and Sassanid Empires that spoke Old and Middle Persian.
Romans/Byzantines
Civilization that spoke Latin and Greek.
Arabian Peninsula
Region where Arabic and Aramaic were spoken.
Egyptians
Civilization that spoke Coptic, derived from Ancient Egyptian.
Judaism
Monotheistic religion that influenced Islam, with strong communities in Arabia.
Christianity
Monotheistic religion that became dominant in the Byzantine Empire and influenced Islam.
Great Schism
The division of Christianity in 1054 into the Roman Catholic Church and Eastern Orthodox Church.
Byzantine Empire
An empire that preserved Greek and Roman knowledge and interacted with early Islam.
Mecca
Religious and trade center, home of the Kaaba, and birthplace of Muhammad.
Muhammad
The founder of Islam and the last prophet who unified Arabia under Islam.
Kaaba
A sacred structure in Mecca, center of Islamic worship, originally housed idols.
Rightly Guided Caliphs
The first four leaders after Muhammad's death, crucial in the early expansion of Islam.
Abu Bakr
The first caliph who unified Arabia and began the Islamic expansion.
Umar
The second caliph who expanded Islamic territory into Persia and Byzantine lands.
Uthman
The third caliph who standardized the Quran and faced opposition leading to his assassination.
Ali
The fourth caliph who faced the First Fitna and was assassinated.
Quran
The final revelation to humanity, providing spiritual, moral, and legal guidance in Islam.
Umayyad Dynasty
An Islamic dynasty known for its territorial expansion and later overthrown by the Abbasids.
Sunni
Muslims who believe the caliph should be chosen by consensus (majority).
Shia
Muslims who believe only Muhammad’s descendants should rule.
Abbasid Caliphate
An Islamic caliphate known for its Golden Age marked by advancements in various fields.
House of Wisdom
A center in Baghdad for advancements in science, medicine, and philosophy during the Abbasid Golden Age.
Ottoman Empire
A major Islamic empire founded by Osman I, expanded into Europe and the Middle East.
Siege of Vienna
The battle in 1683 that halted Ottoman expansion into Europe.
Tanzimat Movement
A series of reforms in the Ottoman Empire aimed at modernization and legal equality.
Janissaries
Elite Ottoman troops originally formed from Christian boys converted to Islam.
Iranian History
The historical narrative of Iran, especially after the Mongol invasion in 1258.
Constitutional Movement in Iran
A movement that led to the formation of the first Iranian constitution and parliament.
Sykes-Picot Agreement
The 1916 secret deal between Britain and France to divide Ottoman lands.
Balfour Declaration
The 1917 British statement supporting a Jewish homeland in Palestine.
Mustafa Atatürk
The founder of modern Turkey who introduced secular reforms and abolished the caliphate.
Short Answers
Exam format that includes defining key terms and concepts.
Essays
Exam format requiring detailed responses about specific historical questions.
Civil War (First Fitna)
A conflict that arose following the assassination of the caliph Ali.
Arabia
A region unified under Islam largely due to Muhammad's leadership.
Coptic
The language derived from Ancient Egyptian, spoken by Egyptians.
Algebra
A branch of mathematics advanced during the Abbasid Golden Age.
Medina
City in Arabia that housed strong communities of Judaism before the rise of Islam.
Ecclesiastical Authority
The spiritual authority held by church leaders, significant in the context of the Great Schism.
Cleansing of Kaaba
The act by Muhammad to remove idols from the Kaaba, establishing it as a monotheistic site.
Cultural Exchange
Interaction between civilizations, notably during the Byzantine Empire and early Islam.
Sassanid Empire
One of the Persian empires that played a significant role prior to the rise of Islam.
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