Pre-Islamic Middle East Major Civilizations & Languages: Mesopotamians (Sumerians, Akkadians, Babylonians, Assyrians) – Spoke Sumerian, Akkadian (late

Pre-Islamic Middle East 

Major Civilizations & Languages: 

Mesopotamians (Sumerians, Akkadians, Babylonians, Assyrians) – Spoke Sumerian, Akkadian (later Aramaic) 

Persians (Achaemenid, Parthian, Sassanid Empires) – Spoke Old Persian, Middle Persian (Pahlavi) 

Romans/Byzantines – Spoke Latin and Greek 

Arabian Peninsula – Spoke Arabic, Aramaic 

Egyptians – Spoke Coptic (derived from Ancient Egyptian) 

Religions Before Islam 

Judaism & Christianity: 

Monotheistic religions that influenced Islam 

Christianity became dominant in the Byzantine Empire 

Judaism had strong communities in Arabia (e.g., Medina) 

Byzantine Empire & Rome Split 

In 1054, the Great Schism divided Christianity into the Roman Catholic Church (West) & Eastern Orthodox Church (East) 

Byzantines preserved Greek/Roman knowledge and culture, played a major role in early interactions with Islam 

Rise of Islam & Early Islamic History 

Question on Rise of Islam: 

How did Islam spread so rapidly after Muhammad’s death? 

Importance of Mecca: 

Religious and trade center, home of the Kaaba, birthplace of Muhammad 

Importance of Muhammad: 

Founder of Islam, last prophet, unified Arabia under Islam 

Kaaba: 

Sacred structure in Mecca, center of Islamic worship, housed idols before Muhammad cleansed it 

Death of Muhammad (632 CE): 

Led to disputes over leadership, resulting in the Sunni-Shia split 

Rightly Guided Caliphs (632-661 CE) 

Abu Bakr (632-634) – Unified Arabia, began Islamic expansion 

Umar (634-644) – Expanded into Persia, Byzantine lands, established administrative structure 

Uthman (644-656) – Standardized Quran, faced opposition, assassinated 

Ali (656-661) – Faced civil war (First Fitna), assassinated 

Midterm Question Example: 

Discuss the significance of the Rightly Guided Caliphs in shaping early Islam. 

Quran: One Interpretation 

The Quran is seen as God’s final revelation to humanity, providing spiritual, moral, and legal guidance. 

Umayyad Dynasty (661-750 CE) 

Expansion: From Spain to Central Asia 

Failure: Overthrown by Abbasids due to corruption, favoritism toward Arab elites 

Sunni-Shia Split 

Sunni – Believe caliph should be chosen by consensus (majority) 

Shia – Believe only Muhammad’s descendants (Ali’s lineage) should rule 

Abbasid Caliphate & Golden Age (750-1258 CE) 

Achievements: 

House of Wisdom (Baghdad) – Advancements in science, medicine, math (algebra), philosophy 

Flourishing trade & culture 

Ottoman Empire 

Foundation & Expansion: 

Founded by Osman I (1299) 

Expanded into Balkans, Middle East, and North Africa 

Siege of Vienna (1683): 

Ottoman expansion halted in Europe by European coalition 

Causes of Ottoman Decline: 

Military stagnation, corruption, economic decline, rise of European powers 

Ottoman Reforms & Military 

Tanzimat Movement (1839-1876): 

Modernization, legal & educational reforms, attempted equal rights 

Janissaries: 

Elite Ottoman troops, originally Christian boys converted to Islam, later became politically powerful 

Iranian History 

Iran After Mongol Invasion (1258): 

Mongols devastated Iran, led to rise of Persian dynasties (Ilkhanate, Safavids) 

After Abbasid Collapse (1258): 

Mongols sacked Baghdad, Islamic world fragmented into smaller states 

Constitutional Movement in Iran (1905-1911): 

Led to first Iranian constitution and parliament, reducing Qajar monarchy power 

Partitioning of the Middle East & Zionism 

Sykes-Picot Agreement (1916): 

Secret deal between Britain & France to divide Ottoman lands 

Balfour Declaration (1917): 

British support for a Jewish homeland in Palestine 

Modernization & Nationalism 

Mustafa Atatürk (1881-1938): 

Achievements: Modernized Turkey, abolished the caliphate, introduced secular reforms 

Failures: Authoritarian rule, suppression of religious conservatives 

Exam Breakdown Example 

Short Answers (7-10 questions, 130 points total) 

Define Sunni vs. Shia 

Importance of the Kaaba 

Impact of the Abbasid Golden Age 

Causes of Ottoman decline 

Who were the Janissaries? 

What was the Tanzimat Movement? 

Explain the Sykes-Picot Agreement 

Essays (2-3 questions, 70 points total) 

How did the early caliphs shape Islamic history? 

Discuss the Ottoman Empire’s rise and decline. 

How did European involvement shape the modern Middle East? 

Let me know if you need anything else! 

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