patho midterm LOCK IN

What is a neoplasm?

An abnormal cellular growth that no longer responds to normal genetic controls

What characterizes malignant neoplasms?

Undifferentiated, nonfunctional cells that reproduce rapidly, invade tissues, and may metastasize

Why don’t malignant cells undergo apoptosis?

They lose normal genetic control, allowing continuous growth and survival

What allows malignant tumors to spread to other tissues?

Lack of adhesion between cells, enabling them to detach and invade surrounding tissues

What defines a benign neoplasm?

Differentiated cells that reproduce at a higher rate than normal and are typically encapsulated

How does tissue damage occur in benign tumors?

Primarily by compression of adjacent structures

What is carcinogenesis?

The process by which normal cells are transformed into cancer cells

Name the two stages of carcinogenesis.

Initiation (irreversible DNA changes) and promotion (further DNA changes and increased mitosis)

What is a paraneoplastic syndrome?

A systemic effect from tumor cells releasing substances that affect neurological or hormonal function

Why is ovarian cancer often fatal?

Hidden nature leading to late diagnosis and spread through pelvic and peritoneal fluids

What distinguishes Hodgkin’s lymphoma from Non-Hodgkin’s lymphoma?

Hodgkin’s has single node involvement and Reed-Sternberg cells

What are Reed-Sternberg cells?

Giant cells characteristic of Hodgkin’s lymphoma

What is multiple myeloma?

Neoplastic disease with increased plasma cells in the bone marrow causing bone tumors, pain, and impaired blood cell production

How does external radiation work in cancer treatment?

Causes mutations or DNA alterations, most effective in rapidly dividing cells

What are common adverse effects of external radiation?

Bone marrow depression, epithelial cell damage, infertility, fatigue

What is chemotherapy?

Treatment using antineoplastic drugs that interfere with protein synthesis and/or DNA replication

What limits the dose of chemotherapy drugs?

Bone marrow depression

Name common chemotherapy side effects.

Nausea, hair loss, epithelial cell damage, organ-specific toxicity

What is apoptosis?

Programmed cell death

Why is apoptosis important in cancer prevention?

It eliminates damaged or abnormal cells

What is caseation necrosis?

A form of coagulation necrosis producing a thick, yellowish, “cheesy” substance

What role do fibroblasts play in tissue repair?

They form granulation tissue and help in scar formation during chronic inflammation

What is the inflammatory response?

A nonspecific protective mechanism responding to tissue injury

Name local effects of inflammation.

Redness, warmth, swelling/edema, pain, and loss of function

What chemicals mediate inflammation?

Bradykinin and histamine

What is leukocytosis?

Increased number of white blood cells, typically due to infection or inflammation

What is the primary function of neutrophils?

Phagocytosis of bacteria and debris as first responders to infection

What is humoral immunity?

Immune defense involving B cells that produce antibodies and memory cells

What role do helper T cells play in humoral immunity?

Activate B cells to produce antibodies

What are memory cells?

B or T cells that remember specific antigens and trigger faster secondary responses

What is anaphylaxis?

A severe, life-threatening allergic reaction caused by IgE binding to mast cells

Name symptoms of anaphylaxis.

Decreased BP, dyspnea, edema, panic, hives

What is the treatment for anaphylaxis?

Immediate epinephrine, antihistamines, and supportive care

What is systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE)?

Autoimmune disease where the immune system attacks self-antigens

What are hallmark symptoms of SLE?

Butterfly rash, polyarthritis, glomerulonephritis, anemia, CNS effects

What cells are destroyed by HIV?

Helper T lymphocytes (CD4+)

How is HIV transmitted?

Through bodily fluids such as blood, semen, and vaginal secretions

What is antiretroviral therapy (ART)?

Combination of drugs to inhibit HIV replication at multiple stages

What is a nosocomial infection?

An infection acquired in healthcare facilities

What is an opportunistic infection?

Infection by normally harmless microbes in immunocompromised individuals

Name an opportunistic yeast infection.

Candida causing thrush or vaginitis

What is the primary cation in extracellular fluid?

Sodium (Na+)

What is osmotic pressure?

Force that drives water movement between compartments

How can edema develop from low plasma protein levels?

Decreased osmotic pressure allows fluid to accumulate in interstitial spaces

What causes pitting edema?

Excess interstitial fluid that leaves a depression when pressed

What are common signs of dehydration?

Dry mucous membranes, decreased skin turgor, low BP, fatigue, confusion

What is hypokalemia?

Low serum potassium (<3.5 mEq/L)

What are effects of hypokalemia?

Cardiac dysrhythmias, muscle weakness, paresthesias, shallow respiration

What is hyperkalemia?

High serum potassium (>5 mEq/L)

What are effects of hyperkalemia?

Cardiac dysrhythmias, muscle weakness progressing to paralysis, respiratory arrest

What is anemia?

Reduced oxygen transport due to low hemoglobin

Name general signs of anemia.

Fatigue, pallor, dyspnea, tachycardia

What is pernicious anemia?

Vitamin B12 deficiency due to lack of intrinsic factor

What is aplastic anemia?

Bone marrow failure causing pancytopenia

What is sickle cell anemia?

Genetic hemoglobin abnormality causing sickling of RBCs under low oxygen

What complication of sickle cell anemia leads to jaundice?

Hyperbilirubinemia from high RBC destruction

What are the stages of the General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS)?

Alarm, Resistance, Final stage

What is the stress response?

Systemic reaction to internal/external changes, elevating BP, HR, glucose, CNS arousal, and decreasing immune function

What is acute pain?

Sudden, severe, short-term pain indicating tissue damage

What does the gate-control theory propose?

Pain pathways have “gates” in the spinal cord and brain that can reduce pain signal transmission

How can endorphins affect pain perception?

They block pain signal conduction, increasing tolerance

What are causes of headaches?

Sinus congestion, muscle tension, migraine, intracranial pressure, stress

What is spinal anesthesia?

Regional anesthesia to block pain from legs or abdomen

Define paralysis.

Loss of motor function

What is hemiplegia?

Paralysis of one side of the body

What is paraplegia?

Paralysis of the lower half of the body

What is quadriplegia?

Paralysis of trunk and all four limbs

What is diplegia?

Symmetrical paralysis in any area of the body

What is a decubitus ulcer?

Skin breakdown from pressure, poor circulation, edema, or friction

What is atelectasis?

Collapse of lung tissue due to immobility and pooled secretions

What are causes of edema?

Increased capillary hydrostatic pressure, loss of plasma proteins, lymphatic obstruction, increased capillary permeability

How does hyponatremia affect extracellular fluid?

Decreases osmotic pressure, causing fluid to shift into cells, leading to hypovolemia and cerebral edema

What is the primary function of capillaries?

Facilitate microcirculation and exchange of gases, nutrients, and wastes between blood and tissues

How does inflammation affect capillary permeability?

Chemical mediators increase permeability, allowing fluid and proteins to enter interstitial spaces

What is the role of glucocorticoids in inflammation?

Decrease capillary permeability and reduce edema

What is the difference between benign and malignant tumors regarding growth rate?

Benign tumors grow slowly

How can tumor cells cause systemic effects?

Secrete enzymes or hormones that disrupt normal cell function or electrolyte balance

Why are brain tumors potentially dangerous even if benign?

Compression of brain tissue can impair function and be life-threatening

What is the function of the sodium bicarbonate–carbonic acid system?

Major extracellular buffer controlled by respiratory system and kidneys

What is the nadir in chemotherapy?

Point of lowest blood cell count following treatment

Why is bone marrow depression a limiting factor in cancer therapy?

Increases risk of infection, anemia, bleeding, and tissue breakdown

What is the difference between initiation and promotion in carcinogenesis?

Initiation causes irreversible DNA change

How can tumor cells metastasize?

By detaching, invading surrounding tissue, and entering blood or lymphatic vessels

What are paraneoplastic hormones?

Substances secreted by tumors causing systemic effects unrelated to tumor location

Why is early detection important in ovarian cancer?

Hidden growth leads to late diagnosis and poor prognosis

What are common manifestations of Hodgkin’s lymphoma?

Painless enlarged lymph node, low-grade fever, night sweats, fatigue, weight loss

What is the difference in lymph node involvement between Hodgkin and Non-Hodgkin lymphoma?

Hodgkin: single node, organized spread

What is the main feature of multiple myeloma on bone?

Multiple tumors causing bone destruction and severe pain

Why does chemotherapy cause nausea and vomiting?

Drugs affect rapidly dividing cells, including gastrointestinal epithelium

How does external radiation affect rapidly dividing cells?

Causes DNA damage leading to cell death

Why can chemotherapy and radiation cause infertility?

Damage to reproductive cells in gonads

What is caseous necrosis associated with?

Tuberculosis or chronic granulomatous inflammation

What is the difference between apoptosis and necrosis?

Apoptosis is programmed cell death

Why are neutrophils considered first responders?

Rapidly migrate to infection sites and perform phagocytosis

What is the primary difference between resident flora and pathogens?

Resident flora are usually nonpathogenic and beneficial

What is the role of B memory cells?

Provide rapid, strong secondary antibody response upon re-exposure to antigen

How does an incompatible blood transfusion cause hemolytic anemia?

Antigen–antibody reaction destroys donor RBCs (Type II hypersensitivity)

What is the effect of hyperbilirubinemia?

Causes jaundice due to excess bilirubin in blood

Why does sickle cell anemia lead to multiple infarctions?

Sickled RBCs obstruct microcirculation, causing tissue ischemia

What are systemic effects of stress?

Elevated BP, heart rate, blood glucose, CNS arousal, decreased immune response