Psychology- Ch.6-Learning- Key terms

Learning

a relatively permanent change in an organism's behavior due to experience

Habituation

A basic form of learning is evident when an organism does not respond as strongly or as often to an event following multiple exposures to it.

Stimulus

a signal to which an organism responds

natural stimulus

in classical conditioning, a stimulus that elicits no response before conditioning

classical conditioning

a learning process that occurs when two stimuli are repeatedly paired; a response that is at first elicited by the second stimulus is eventually elicited by the first stimulus alone.

unconditioned stimulus

in classical conditioning, a stimulus that unconditionally—naturally and automatically—triggers a response.

unconditioned response

In classical conditioning, the unlearned, naturally occurring response to the unconditioned stimulus (US), such as salivation when food is in the mouth.

conditioned stimulus

A previously neutral stimulus that has, through conditioning, acquired the capacity to evoke a conditioned response.

conditioned response

a learned response to a previously neutral stimulus

acquisition

In classical conditioning, the initial stage, when one links a neutral stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus so that the neutral stimulus begins triggering the conditioned response. In operant conditioning, the strengthening of a reinforced response.

stimulus generalization

the tendency to respond to a stimulus that is only similar to the original conditioned stimulus with the conditioned response

stimulus discrimination

ability to respond differently to similar stimuli

Extinction

in classical conditioning, the process of eliminating the previously acquired association of the conditioned stimulus and conditioned response

spontaneous recovery

the reappearance, after a pause, of an extinguished conditioned response

higher-order conditioning

With repeated pairings of a conditioned stimulus and a neutral stimulus, the second neutral stimulus becomes a conditioned stimulus as well.

conditioned taste aversion

a form of classical conditioning that occurs when an organism learns to associate the taste of a particular food or drink with illness

adaptive value

the degree to which a trait or behavior helps an organism survive

biological preparedness

the tendency of animals to learn certain associations, such as taste and nausea, with only one or few pairings due to the survival value of the learning

conditioned emotional response

An emotional reaction acquired through classical conditioning; process by which an emotional reaction becomes associated with a previously neutral stimulus.

law of effect

Thorndike's principle that behaviors followed by favorable consequences become more likely, and that behaviors followed by unfavorable consequences become less likely

reinforcers

events, stimuli, and other consequences that increase the likelihood of a behavior reoccurring

Reinforcement

process of increasing the frequency of behaviors with consequences

operant conditioning

learning that occurs when voluntary actions become associated with their consequences

positive reinforcement

the process of strengthening a behavior by contingently presenting something pleasing

negative reinforcement

removal of a stimulus that strengthens the probability of the behavior

primary reinforcer

A reinforcer that satisfies a biological need, such as food, water, physical contact; innate reinforcer.

secondary reinforcer

a reinforcer that does not satisfy a biological need but often fains power through its association with a primary reinforcer

successive approximations

a method that uses reinforcers to condition a series of small steps that gradually approach the target behavior

Shaping

process by which a person observes the behaviors of another organism, providing reinforcers if the organism performs at a required level

instinctive drift

tendency for animals to return to innate behaviors following repeated reinforcement

continuous reinforcement

a schedule of reinforcement in which every occurrence of a particular response is followed by a reinforcer

partial reinforcement

A schedule of reinforcement in which target behaviors are reinforced intermittently, not continuously.

partial reinforcement effect

the tendency for a response that is reinforced after some, but not all, correct responses to be very resistant to extinction

fixed-ratio schedule

A schedule in which the subject must exhibit a predetermined number of desired behaviors before a reinforcer is given.

variable-ratio schedule

A schedule in which the number of desired behaviors that must occur before a reinforcer is given changes across trials and is based on an average number of behaviors to be reinforced.

fixed-interval schedule

a schedule in which the reinforcer comes after a pre established interval of time; the behavior is only reinforced after the given interval is over

variable-interval schedule

A schedule in which the reinforcer comes after an interval of time goes by, but the length of the interval changes from trial to trial.

punishment

The application of a consequence that decreases the likelihood of a behavior recurring.

positive punishment

addition of something unpleasant

negative punishment

the removal of a stimulus to decrease the probability of a behavior's recurring

model

the individual who demonstrates a behavior or whose behavior is imitated

observational learning

learning that occurs through observing and imitating another's behavior

prosocial behaviors

actions that are kind, generous, and beneficial to others

latent learning

Learning that occurs without awareness and regardless of reinforcement, and is not evident until needed.

cognitive map

a mental representation of the layout of one's environment