Studied by 5 people
Free will
When we make our own choices/decisions and act in unconstrained ways. We are not influenced by internal or external factors and we choose our own course of action
Examples of free will in research: humanistic approach (Maslow and Rogers suggest free will is essential part of the human experience – we know we can make choices!) or Social learning theory
Determinism
When internal or external factors beyond our control have an influence on our behaviour. Therefore, behaviour is predictable
Internal factors e.g. mood, genetics, cognitive processes
External factors e.g. childhood, surroundings, parents
Examples of determinism
Hard determinism
Soft determinism
Biological determinism
Environmental determinism
Psychic determinism
Reciprocal determinism
Hard determinism
Environment, genetics, unconscious impulses, and other influences/causes determine people to act the way they do; and because of that, they arenot responsible for their actions (no choice is possible). Identifying the cause of people's behaviours should be possible (causal laws of thought and action)
Example from research- behaviourist approach
Soft determinism
Acknowledges that all events, including human actions, have causes; but it allows for some actions involving choice. Suggests some room for manoeuvre in that people have conscious mental control over the way they behave
Example from research- social learning theory (Behaviour may be influenced by others around us, but we can choose who / what behaviours to imitate and model) and the cognitive approach (We are influenced in some way but we can choose what information we attend to)
Biological determinism
The belief that behaviour is caused by biological factors (e.g. genetic, hormonal, evolutionary) influences we can’t control
Example from research- biological approach (Behaviour is caused by the influence of bio factors such as genetics / hormones / neurotransmitters)
Environmental determinism
The belief that behaviours are caused by features of the environment (e.g. reward/punishment) that we can’t control.
Example from research- Behaviourist approach (Research supports the notion that behaviour is linked to previous experiences such as classical and operant conditioning
Psychic determinism
The belief that behaviour is caused by unconscious conflicts that we cannot control.
Example from research- Psychodynamic approach (We may identify with a parent - Oedipus complex)
Reciprocal determinism
The belief that we have influence on our environment and that in turn influences us
Example from research- Social learning theory (Bandura accepts the possibility that an individual's behaviour may be conditioned through the use of consequences)
AO3 EVALUATION: Free Will
For:
Free will gives people responsibility and control
Free will is intuitively correct as we all know that we can make choices and that our own behaviour can be unpredictable. Psychology should incorporate this into research/theory construction
Against:
Free will is unfalsifiable. It is difficult to test as it cannot be directly observed, therefore there is no way to identify causal relationships between IV and DV. This results in making psychological research and theory irrelevant.
AO3 EVALUATION: Determinism
For:
Falsifiable- Taking a deterministic view of behaviour can be considered useful for the scientific study of psychology. Science relies on determinism to establish cause and effect, and if we can isolate the cause then this can serve as a controllable IV to measure its effect on a DV, and is therefore falsifiable. Furthermore, this observed effect is an example of empirical methods. Therefore, highlighting how a deterministic view of behaviour is necessary for the scientific study of psychology.
Against:
However, deterministic viewpoints are often criticised for overlooking the role of free will in behaviour. Free will is intuitively correct, whilst it is not useful for scientific study, it does appear that we can exert at least some choice over our behaviour. Ignoring the role of free will has implications for society as it removes responsibility from the individual and therefore can excuse criminal/bad behaviour. This also has implications of social sensitivity, as by removing the blame from individuals, it risks causing harm to victims of bad behaviour e.g. victims of crimes as their perpetrators may not be punished sufficiently
CASE STUDY: Bradley Waldroup
Compromise to the free will vs determinism debate
Interactionist stance- All psychological theory and research needs to acknowledge that humans use a mix of freewill and predetermined actions in their behaviour. Therefore all theories and research should take an interactionist stance on this debate. Theories that don’t can be seen as of limited use in explaining human behaviour.
Gender bias
Gender bias refers to the tendency to favor one gender over another in psychological research, theory, or practice. It can involve assumptions, stereotypes, or prejudices about gender that can influence how researchers collect data, interpret results, or apply their findings to real-world situations.
Historically, psychology has been a male-dominated discipline. The issue arising from this is that most major theories and explanations reflect The e female voice has been minimised, marginalised or judged as ‘abnormal’ against the male standard.
Why is gender bias important to study in psychology?
Gender bias can have significant implications for our understanding of human behaviour and our ability to address social issues related to gender equality. By examining the ways in which gender bias can influence psychological research and practice, we can gain a deeper understanding of the complex relationship between gender and culture, and work towards more accurate and inclusive approaches to studying human behaviour.
How can we address gender bias in psychological research and practice?
Addressing gender bias in psychology requires a combination of awareness, education, and action. Some strategies for addressing gender bias include using more inclusive language in research and practice, considering the diversity of gender and cultural experiences in study design and analysis, and challenging stereotypes and assumptions about gender in academic and professional settings
Universality
Any underlying characteristic of human beings that could be applied to all, despite differences of experience and upbringing. Psychology claims to have universality, but time, culture and gender bias all threaten the universality of findings.
Bias
Psychologists are people who (like all of us) possess beliefs and values that have been influenced by the social and historical contexts they live/d in. Inevitably their beliefs will have an impact on their research design and interpretation of results – this will bias the theories we use.
Beta Bias
Exaggerating the similarity (or minimising the differences) between men & women. This often happens when findings are obtained from males and are applied to females without additional validation. This results in theories misrepresenting one of the other genders
Alpha Bias
Exaggerating or overestimating the differences between men & women. This results in theories devaluing one gender in comparison to the other.
Androcentrism
Taking male thinking/behaviour as the accepted norm; regarding female thinking/behaviour as deviant, inferior, abnormal, ‘other’ when/if it is different.
This has come about due to the male domination of psychology throughout its history. Many/most older theories represent a male world-view. This results in theories devaluing and misinterpreting women
Gynocentrism
Taking female behaviour as the accepted norm; regarding male thinking/behaviour as deviant, inferior, abnormal, when/if it is different
AO3 EVALUATION: Gender bias
Examples of Alpha Bias (Androcentrism) in research- Freud’s theories were created in late 1800’s/early 1900’s, in Vienna – at the time, men were regarded as dominant (educated, powerful and superior to women). Freud viewed femininity as ‘failed masculinity’. He exaggerated the differences between men and women. Therefore, this is an example of Alpha bias – specifically Androcentrism
Examples of Beta Bias in research- Fight-or-flight response. Early research into this topic was conducted exclusively on male animals (because female hormones fluctuate) and findings were assumed to be a universal response to a threatening stimulus. This is an example of assuming similarity in the sexes, beta bias. More recently researchers have suggested that female biology has evolved to inhibit the f/f response, and produce a tending/befriending response instead.
Sexism within the research process- There is a lack of females appointed at senior research level meaning that female concerns may not be reflected in the research questions asked, therefore males are more likely to be published and studies finding gender differences are more likely to be published. This leads to a lack in valid research
Problems with ignoring indifferences- Hare-Mustin and Marecek (1988) point out that arguing for complete equality (pretending differences don’t exist) has its problems. It underplays specific challenges women face, for example, equal parental-leave would ignore the biological demands of pregnancy faced by women. This creates a beta bias, which should be avoided and significant differences should be taken into account
Implications of gender bias- scientifically misleading research, upholding stereotypical assumptions, validating sex discrimination
Challenging the issue of gender bias bias
Female perspective- View of women as normal humans, not deficient men and accepting there are biological differences between men and women but that stereotypes make a bigger contribution to perceived differences. Also, Re-examining the ‘facts’ and creating a balance. However, gynocentrism could be a new issue in this case.
Research by Eagly (1978) claims that females are less effective leaders than males. However, the purpose of Eagly’s claim is to help researchers develop training programmes aimed at reducing the lack of female leaders in the real-world.
Darwin’s theory of sexual selection- Women choose, Men compete. (Females should be selective as egg production is not abundant). However this is an outdated idea and has historical gender roles. Although, more recent DNA evidence suggests it is beneficial for Women to pursue multiple mates – putting them in competition with other women (Vernimmen, 2015).
How can culture bias affect psychology?
Cultural bias can affect psychological research by influencing the selection of research participants, research methods, and interpretation of results. For example, if a study only includes participants from one cultural group, the findings may not be generalizable to other cultures. Similarly, if researchers use measures or tests that are culturally biassed, the results may not accurately reflect the experiences or behaviours of individuals from other cultures. Culturally biassed research can also have significant real-world effects by, for example, amplifying and validating damaging stereotypes.
How can culture bias be addressed in psychology?
Cultural bias can be addressed in psychology by increasing cultural awareness and sensitivity among researchers and practitioners. This can be achieved through education and training programs, as well as by incorporating diverse perspectives and experiences into research and practice. Additionally, psychologists can work with individuals and communities to understand their unique cultural contexts and tailor interventions accordingly.
Culture
the values, beliefs and patterns of behaviour shared by a group of people. A variety of factors shape culture and these different factors are reflected in the differences between various cultures
Culture bias
A tendency to ignore cultural differences and interpret all behaviour through the norms of your own culture. This leads to a misinterpretation of behaviour
Ethnocentrism
A culture bias leading to the belief in the superiority of your own culture, causing prejudice and discrimination towards other cultures, regarding them as deficient or underdeveloped.
Cultural relativism
The idea that norms and values (& ethics/morals) can only be meaningful and understood within specific social and cultural contexts. This avoids culture bias but limits and prevents universality
Types of theoretical construct
Emic behaviours= the behaviour constructs particular to a specific culture
Etic behaviours= the behavioural constructs that are universal to all people
Imposed Etics= when Emics and Etics get mistaken for each other. Leading to a misunderstanding and misinterpretation of behaviour
AO3 EVALUATION: Culture bias
Individualism vs collectivism- Individualist cultures value personal freedom and independence, whereas collectivist cultures value interdependence and group needs. These cultures are simply not comparable in terms of origins of behaviours. This will cause an ethnocentric bias or an etic to be imposed, leading to compromised validity of any theory construction.
Cross-Cultural Research difficulties- Researchers may be unable to relinquish their own cultural world-view, which may always influence/bias their interpretations. Barriers to communication are numerous: Gaining trust of informants / participants, understanding what informants / participants say, relying on interpreters, ensuring equivalence in translation of materials. Also Unfamiliarity with research tradition leading to demand characteristics may be exaggerated or uneasy behaviour displayed rather than natural (=poor validity)
Examples of Ethnocentrism in research- Asch’s research into conformity (1951). The study involved testing whether or not people would conform to the majority. Asch concluded that people will conform to majority opinion (even if the answer is wrong). Because only Americans were used, the research is ethnocentric. The study also only used university aged males, so it is also an example of gender bias. To avoid this ethnocentrism, further research on different cultures should be conducted to be able to draw truly universal conclusions on conformity.
Solving the issue of culture bias
Cultural bias may be less of an issue in more recent psychological research (Takano and Osaka 1999 found no evidence of individualism or collectivism when comparing US and Japanese studies)
The emergence of cultural psychology (Cohen 2017) incorporates work from researchers in other disciplines including anthropology, sociology and political science.
Cultural psychologists strive to avoid ethnocentric assumptions by taking an emic approach by researching from inside a culture. This suggests modern psychologists are mindful of the dangers of cultural bias and (should) take steps to avoid it.
The nature nurture debate
The debate here is about the relative importance and contribution of heredity and environment in determining behaviour. Nature (hereditary) is associated with the nativist theory; they stress the importance of inherited influences on behaviour. Whereas, empiricists (nurture) believe behaviour is due to learning, environment and experience.
In modern times, the debate is an interactionist approach, which is the belief that both nature and nurture are essential to any behaviour but interact in a complex manner
Nature
René Descartes (1596-1650) suggested that the human soul, when born, is already equipped with an understanding of key concepts, such as time.
He was a nativist and his theory formed the basis of the nativist point of view: that we are born with dispositions and pre-programmed behaviours as a result of heredity.
Heredity: is the genetic transmission of mental and physical characteristics from one generation to the next.
Examples in research- genetic explanations
Biological approach- behaviour is born and innate. Biological processes such as the role of the genetics, brain structures and neurotransmitters are behind behaviour. For example, OCD is explained through genetic variation with the COMT and SERT gene, or an imbalance of certain neurotransmitters, e.g. serotonin
MAOA gene in aggression (also mentioned in the Free will/Determinism debate)
Examples in research- evolutionary explanations
Attachment theories- Bowlby’s theory of attachment and Aisnwoth’s strange situation
Nurture
Empiricism suggests we are born without any innate mechanisms.
John Locke (1632 – 1704) argued we are born as a ‘Tabula Rasa’ (blank slate), and experiences write on this slate to form the basis of who we become.
Environment: Any influence on human behaviour that is non-genetic. E.g. from prenatal influences through to cultural and historical influences at societal level.
Examples from research
Behaviourist approach- Behaviour is learned from conditioning through the environment. For example, classical conditioning: phobias are learned through the association of stimulus and response. Operant conditioning: fear is maintained through negative reinforcement
Social learning theory- it argues that we learn our behaviour from role models in our environment. Bandura's (1977) social learning theory states that aggression is learned from the environment through observation and imitation.
Studying and measuring the nature-nurture debate
Twin studies
Adoption studies
Family studies
Molecular studies
These methods help researchers to understand the relative contributions of genetic and environmental factors in human behaviour and development
Relative importance of the nature nurture debate
This means the contribution each variable makes to the prediction of a criteria by itself and with other predictor variables
The nature/nurture debate becomes impossible to answer because environmental influence in a child’s life begins as soon as it’s born (or even before).
Nature- Nurture are so closely intertwined that, practically and theoretically, it makes little sense to try to separate the two.
E.g. in twin studies, it is often very difficult to tell whether high concordance rates are more the result of shared genetics or shared upbringing.
Therefore the focus of this debate has changed over the years – and we are now more likely to seek the relative contribution of each influence in terms of our thought patterns and our behaviour
The interactionist approach
The idea that nature and nurture are linked to such an extent that it does not make sense to separate the two, so instead researchers study how they interact and influence each other
The relative influence of genes can be investigated using twin studies.
Monozygotic (identical) twins share 100% of DNA, and so, if behaviour was purely determined by genetics, they would act the same. However, they do not, therefore the environment must also have an impact measured similarity in their behaviour is known as concordance rates (or heritability coefficient).
Adoption studies are also useful when determining the relative influences of nature and nurture. Do adopted children behave more like their biological or adopted parents? The answer is both, thus demonstrating that nature and nurture cannot be separated
AO3 EVALUATION: Nature nurture debate
Example of the interactionist approach in research- Diathesis-Stress Model. A gene for a behaviour/disorder exists, but it must be ‘triggered’ into action by a stressful event in your environment. This equals gene/environment interactions – so the cause of the behaviour is BOTH nature and nurture. Seen in Psychopathology – study of OCD. SERT/COMT genes need ‘triggering’ by a trauma experienced.
Epigenetic’s- A change in our genetic activity without a change in our genetic code. Lifestyle and events we encounter (e.g. smoking, diet, exercise, pollution) leave ‘epigenetic marks’ on our DNA. Interplay between predisposing genes and environmental exposure. These marks tell our bodies which genes to ignore and which to use (switch on or off). These ‘epigenetic marks’ stay in our genes and can be passed down to our children and grandchildren. So, life experience of our previous generations causes a nature AND nurture interaction
Schizophrenia and psych disorders- Schizophrenia and other psychotic disorders are highly debilitating psychiatric conditions that lack a clear aetiology and exhibit polygenic inheritance underlain by pleiotropic genes. Integrating epigenetic into systems biology may critically enhance research on psychosis and thus our understanding of the disorder. This may have implications for psychiatry in risk stratification, early recognition, diagnostics, precision medicine, and other interventional approaches targeting epigenetic fingerprints. 1944, Nazis caused a famine in Netherlands (22,000 died) – Babies born from Women becoming pregnant during this time were twice as likely to develop Schizophrenia
Constructivism- People create their own ‘nurture’ by actively seeking and selecting environments that suit their ‘nature’. E.g. a naturally aggressive or shy child is likely to feel comfortable around children who show similar behaviours and will choose their environment accordingly. This environment then affects their development. Plomin (1994) refers to this as niche-building. This is further evidence of why it’s illogical and impossible to try to separate nature and nurture influences on behaviour. Rendering a separation of the sides of the debate meaningless.
The holism and reductionist debate
This debate is concerned with the level at which it is appropriate to explain human behaviour. Reductionist explanations try to break thought and action down into the smallest, simplest parts, whilst holistic explanations consider the whole person as an indivisible system.
Holism
The argument that behaviour must be viewed as a whole, and that the sum of the parts does not equal the whole. We cannot predict how the whole system will behave just from a knowledge of the individual components. (e.g. for mental disorders – perceiving the whole experience rather than the individual features)
Humanistic psychology advocates a holistic approach, as it argues that humans react to stimuli as an organised whole, rather than a set of stimulus-response links. As an approach, it uses qualitative methods to investigate all aspects of the individual, as well as the interactions between people.
Examples from research:
Humanistic psychology – individuals react as an organised whole. E.g. a person's sense of unified identity.
Cognitive Psychology – our memory behaves differently as a whole, than as the individual parts do independently.
Reductionism
The process of breaking down a phenomenon into its simple components. n(e.g. depression caused by lack of serotonin- lifestyle largely ignored).
Reductionism is based on the scientific assumption of parsimony: the idea that complex phenomena should be explained in the simplest terms possible.
Levels of explanation- Reductionism
For any behaviour, there are often many different possible levels of explanation (reductionist explanations begin at highest level explanations and progressively look towards lower levels).
Higher levels: cultural, social explanations
Middle levels: psychological explanations
Lower levels: biological explanations
The Holism/Reductionism debate asks whether it is appropriate to look at one level specifically and whether this will tell you enough about human behaviour.
Supporters of each level claim that it, alone, provides a complete explanation of human behaviour.
Types of reductionism
Biological
Environmental
Machine
Experimental
Biological reductionism
explanations of behaviour can be reduced to the simplest level – in our case, atoms or chemicals; Neurotransmitters/hormones. (e.g. excess dopamine = Schizophrenia)
Environmental reductionism
explanations of behaviour as due to stimulus-response links. (e.g. baby’s attachment to mother is caused by mother providing food – and this being seen as rewarding)
Machine reductionism
Over-emphasising the analogy of ‘computer processing’ and the human mind – Cognitive models
Experimental reductionism
Oversimplifying the complexity of human behaviour for the benefit of isolating variables to test scientifically – establishing cause and effect – potentially ignores other factors
AO3 EVALUATION: Holism
Strengths
The holistic explanation attempts to blend different levels of explanation; holistic theory and approaches attempt to provide a complete and realistic understanding of human behaviour.
Some behaviours can only be explained at a higher level: Only way to study conformity or may be more appropriate for disorders.
Weaknesses
However, holistic explanations do not establish causation because they do not examine behaviour in terms of operationalised variables that can be manipulated and measured. This means that holistic explanations can be viewed as unscientific.
Rigorous scientific testing is difficult (lack of empirical evidence). Creates a difficulty pinpointing causes to create effective therapies (e.g. depression)
AO3 EVALUATION: Reductionism
Strengths
Forms the basis of scientific research( Operationalised variables and behavioural categories allowing for inference of cause and effect)
Basic unit level of reductionism is more appropriate in the hard sciences because methods and traditions involve detailed scientific analysis of discrete units
Any level of reductionism furthers the aim for psychology’s recognition as a science
Both biological and environmental reductionism are viewed as scientific.
Breaking complex behaviours into smaller constituent parts means they can be scientifically tested over time.
Biological reductionism has led to biological therapies, such as drugs: SSRIs are more effective than placebos at treating OCD and reduce symptoms up to 3 months after treatment.
Weaknesses
Oversimplifies complex phenomena, leading to a loss of validity.
Extreme reductionist level leads to loss of meaning – components do not add up to reflect the whole experience. It can fail to explain why a behaviour is occurring, often just states how
Some psychologists argue that biological reductionism can lead to errors of understanding because it ignores the complexity of human behaviour.
To treat conditions like ADHD with drugs in the belief that the condition consists of nothing more than neurochemical imbalances mistakes the symptoms with the true cause. This is evident in the highly variable success rates of ADHD drug therapy treatments. Therefore, the biological understanding appears inadequate.
The critique of environmental reductionism is as much methodological as it is substantive. Much of the relevant research in the behaviourist tradition has made use of non-human animals as subjects (Pavlov / Skinner).
Critics of reductionism point to the social context in which humans are embedded from the earliest moments of life, and to hard-to-measure factors like cognition, emotion, and intentionality. In this case as well, the reductionist position seems, if not clearly incorrect, then at least inadequate.
Contrasts with holistic level – studying and valuing human experience as a whole; some behaviours can only really be investigated in the holistic context in which they occur
Contrasts with the types of investigation preferred by humanistic psychologists, eg case studies, diaries, interviews which yield richer, more detailed information
Interactionist stance- Holism/Reductionist debate
Explains how the different levels of explanation successfully interact, leading to developments in treatments (e.g. combined drug/CBT/exercise methods).
It differs from reductionism since an interactionist approach would not try to understand behaviour from explanations at one level but as an interaction between different levels
So, for example, we might better understand a mental disorder such as depression by bringing together explanations from physiological, cognitive, and sociocultural levels.
Such an approach might usefully explain the success of drug therapies in treating the disorder, why people with depression think differently about themselves and the world, and why depression occurs more frequently in particular populations.
Idiographic vs nomothetic debate
This debate concerns whether psychology should aim to produce generalisations against which people can be compared or measured, or whether it should hold the belief that all people are unique
Idiographic
Idiographic Psychologists claim that individuals are unique, and generalisations made from quantitative methods are irrelevant, as they do not describe the nature of the individual.
Interviews, self reflections and self-report methods used within case studies are the favoured approach, as they gain more insight into the person's unique way of viewing the world.
Subjective
Produces qualitative data (non numerical)
Can only be applicable to certain individuals
Examples of Idiographic research
Humanistic Psychology – only interested in the experience of the individual or ‘self’, and only concerned with investigating unique experiences.
Psychodynamic approach – Freud used the case study method, for example little Hans, to understand behaviour and conduct dream analysis
Nomotheitc
It states that we are able to draw conclusions about populations from smaller groups
These provide a benchmark against which people can be compared, classified and measured (and future behaviour could be predicted or controlled).
Empirical testing (laboratory exp) is the favoured approach. As large numbers of pps are tested and similarities in behaviour are found.
Produces quantitative data (numerical)
Objective
Large sample used meaning it can be applicable to everyone and create ‘general laws’
Examples of Nomothetic research
Behaviourism – Cause and effect laws of conditioning (reward/punishment)
Cognitive – Memory models applied to all as psychological laws of attention, retention and recall.
Biological – All biological testing is nomothetic (empirical, laboratory testing applied to all people)
Attachment – Schaffer and Emerson’s stages of attachment
AO3 EVALUATION- Idiographic
Strengths:
An in-depth, qualitative method of investigation provides a complete account of an individual.
It can also work well WITH a nomothetic approach; demonstrating the general laws (theories) or can challenge them.
Weaknesses:
Less representative of the target population
Offers only a narrow and restricted view of behaviour
No meaningful generalisations can/should be made without further validation.
Relies on the subjective interpretation of the researcher – which adds bias in conclusions.
AO3 EVALUATION- Nomothetic
Strengths:
Represents the target population and is therefore more applicable
A more scientific approach is used – so data can be analysed quantitatively and tested under standardised empirical methods.
Such processes have enabled psychologists to establish norms of ‘typical’ behaviour (such as average IQ of 100), giving Psychology greater scientific credibility.
Weaknesses:
Less in-depth and personal data, nomothetic approaches are accused of ‘losing the whole person’. E.g. knowing that there is a 1% risk of developing Schizophrenia, tells us very little about what life is like for someone who is suffering from the disorder. The approach overlooks the richness of human experience.
In laboratory experiments, participants are treated as a series of scores/results rather than individual people, and their subjective experience of the situation is completely ignored.
Ethical implications
Psychological research may have a real impact on the lives of those studies and other groups that the participants may represent. There are wider implications to psychological research which must not be overlooked as the effects can cause lasting damage
4 BPS Ethical guidelines
These are a set of principles set out by the BPS to guide psychologists to behave with integrity
Respect
Competence
Responsibility
Integrity
When does an Ethical implication arise?
Issues arise when there is conflict between the rights of the participants and the aims of the researcher
What is an ethical implication?
Consider the impact or consequences that psychological research has on the rights of people in the wider context (not just participants in the study). This includes, at a social level, influencing public policy or the way in which certain groups of people are regarded
Social sensitivity
Sieber and Stanley (1988) used the term social sensitivity to describe studies where there are potential social consequences for the participants or the group of people represented by the research.
Social sensitivity can cause wider ethical implications that impact outside of research context
Research may affect people or groups in society, which can lead to controversy
Aspects in the scientific research process that raise ethical implications in socially sensitive research
Identified by Sieber and Stanley (1988):
The Research Question: The researcher must consider their research question carefully. Asking inappropriate questions like ‘Are there racial differences in IQ?’ or ‘Is intelligence inherited?’ may be damaging to members of a particular group and may seem to add credibility to prejudice and stereotypes of a particular group
The Methodology Used: The researcher needs to consider the treatment of the participant's and their rights e.g. right to confidentiality and anonymity. For example, if someone admits to committing a crime, or to having unprotected sex if they are HIV positive, should the researcher maintain confidentiality?
The Institutional Context: The researcher should be mindful of how the data is going to be used and consider who is funding the research. If the research is funded by a private institution or organisation, why are they funding the research and how do they intend to use the findings?
Interpretation and Application of Findings: Finally, the researcher needs to consider how their findings might be interpreted and applied in the real-world. Could their data or results be used to inform policy?
AO3 EVALUATION- Ethical implications
Solving the issue- new guidelines can be introduced in relation to risk/benefit ratio, equitable treatment of participants, scientific freedom, ownership of data, values and valid methodology
Examples of social sensitivity in research- In Milgram's study, participants were deceived as they weren't told the true nature of the study, including the shocks that they were administering to a confederate were fake. In addition, pp’s were pressured to continue the experiment even after asking to stop (experimenter prods), interfering with the right to withdraw. In Zimbardo’s study, pp’s were not fully informed of the potential emotional trauma that could have been inflicted upon them. Many of the pp’s experienced verbal and physical abuse during the experiment.
Socially sensitive research could benefit the groups being studied- Studies of underrepresented groups and issues may promote a greater sensitivity and understanding of these. This can help to reduce prejudice and encourage acceptance. Also, research such as the unreliability of eyewitness testimony has actually reduced the risk of a miscarriage of justice in the legal system.
May disadvantage marginalised groups- many groups in society have suffered the consequences of having been excluded from research or being misinterpreted when they have been included. Therefore leading to reinforcements of unfair stereotypes.
Poor research design may have long term impact-
Quality and reliability of final results can be diminished
Certain groups within society may be ignored or not included within poor research, limiting its generalisability and accuracy
Increase of social sensitivity from poor research design as methodology has not been assessed which is then published- long term impact on the future readers and applicants of the research
Note 
Flashcard (103)