Bio 111

Order

Organisms are highly organized structures that consist of one or more cells.

Sensitivity or response to stimuli

Organisms can respond to chemical or light stimuli, either moving towards or away from them.

Reproduction

Single-celled organisms duplicate their DNA to reproduce, while multicellular organisms produce specialized reproductive cells.

Adaptation

Adaptation is a consequence of evolution by natural selection, enhancing reproductive potential and ability to survive.

Growth and development

Organisms grow and develop according to specific instructions coded for by their genes.

Regulation/homeostasis

Homeostasis refers to the relatively stable internal environment required to maintain life, achieved through regulatory mechanisms.

Energy processing

Organisms capture and process energy from the sun or from molecules they take in.

Evolution

The diversity of life is a result of mutations and random changes in hereditary material over time, allowing organisms to adapt to a changing environment.

Cell

The smallest fundamental unit of structure and function in living organisms, maintaining stable internal environments.

Tissue

Groups of similar cells carrying out the same function in multicellular organisms.

Organ

Collections of tissues grouped together based on a common function.

Organ system

Higher level of organization consisting of functionally related organs.

Organism

Individual living entities, classified as single-celled or multicellular.

Population

All the individuals of a species living within a specific area.

Community

Set of populations inhabiting a particular area.

Ecosystem

Consists of all the living things in a particular area together with the non-living parts of that environment.

Biosphere

Collection of all ecosystems.

Cell Theory

All organisms are composed of one or more cells, cells are the basic structural and functional unit of all living organisms, and cells only arise from pre-existing cells.

Scientific method

Method of research with defined steps that include experiments and careful observation.

Hypothesis

Testable, falsifiable statements that attempt to explain an observation or phenomenon.

Theory

Strongly supported explanations based on overwhelming evidence.

Inductive reasoning

Logical thinking that uses related observations to arrive at a general conclusion.

Deductive reasoning

Logical thinking that uses a general principle or law to predict specific results.

Descriptive (or discovery) science

Aims to observe, explore, and discover.

Hypothesis-based science

Begins with a specific question or problem and a potential answer or solution that can be tested.

Variable

Any part of an experiment that can vary or change.

Control

Part of an experiment that does not change and serves as a baseline for comparison.

Autotrophs

Organisms that make use of non-biological sources of energy to produce complex molecules.

Heterotrophs

Organisms that must use complex molecules produced by autotrophs as an energy source.

Producers

Plants that convert energy from non-biological sources into complex molecules.

Consumers

Animals that rely on complex molecules produced by autotrophs as an energy source.

Decomposers

Fungi, bacteria, and worms that break down complex molecules into simpler forms.

Enzymes

Proteins that speed up or make possible reactions in the cell.

Catalysts

Substances that catalyze biological reactions and speed up chemical reactions.

Proteins folding

Process in which proteins fold into specific structures or conformations, determined by the interaction of different parts of the amino acid chain.

Shape of a protein

The specific shape of a protein, crucial for its function, determined by the amino acid sequence.

Polymerization

Process of chaining together repeating subunits to form larger molecules.

Biopolymers

Large molecules formed by the polymerization of repeating subunits.

Cells

The basic units of life, categorized into two distinct types:prokaryotic and eukaryotic.

Domains of life

Three major domains of life - Bacteria, Archaea, and Eukarya - which represent different branches on the tree of life.

Biological membranes

Selectively permeable barriers made of phospholipids and proteins, separating the inside of the cell from the outside world.

Cholesterol

A molecule that helps fill in gaps within cell membranes and maintain their integrity.

Proteins

Diverse molecules with various functions, including forming channels, speeding up reactions, responding to stimuli, and providing structural support.

Carbohydrates

Biomolecules found on the plasma membrane, facing the outside of the cell, involved in cell identification and other specialized functions.

Passive transport

The movement of substances across the cell membrane without requiring energy input, driven by concentration gradients.

Diffusion

The movement of dissolved materials from areas of higher concentration to lower concentration, equalizing concentration on both sides of the membrane.

Osmosis

The movement of water from an area of lower solute concentration to higher solute concentration.

Active transport

The movement of substances across the cell membrane that requires energy input, often against a concentration gradient.

Exocytosis

The process in which vesicles fuse with the plasma membrane and release their contents outside the cell.

Prokaryotic cells

Simple cells without a nucleus or membrane-bound organelles, found in bacteria and archaea.

Eukaryotic cells

Complex cells with a nucleus and membrane-bound organelles, found in eukarya.

Organelles

Specialized compartments within eukaryotic cells that perform specific functions, similar to organs in a human body.

Endomembrane system

An extensive network of internal membranes in eukaryotic cells involved in protein processing and transport.

Cytoskeleton

A network of proteins that provides structural support, regulates organelle movement, and allows cell movement.

Nucleus

The storage site of genetic information and the location where gene expression begins in eukaryotic cells.

Endoplasmic reticulum

A network of membranes involved in protein production, modification, and lipid synthesis.

Golgi apparatus

A stack of membranes that acts as a sorting center for materials leaving the cell or going to the lysosome.

Lysosome

An acidic organelle that contains enzymes to digest biological molecules and break down cellular components.

Vesicles and vacuoles

Membrane-bound compartments involved in the movement of substances within the cell and storage.

Mitochondria

Double-membraned organelles that produce ATP through the oxidation of products from the breakdown of glucose and lipids.

Chloroplasts

Double-membraned organelles involved in photosynthesis and ATP production using light energy.

Genomes

The complete set of genetic material in an organism or cell.

Chromosomes

Structures composed of DNA and proteins that carry genetic information.

Homologous chromosomes

Chromosome pairs that are mostly identical in nucleotide sequence and carry the same genes.

Chromatin

The complex of DNA and proteins that make up chromosomes.

DNA replication

The process of faithfully copying the genome before cell division.

Central dogma of molecular biology

The flow of genetic information from DNA to RNA to protein.

Promoters

Regions where RNA polymerases bind to initiate transcription.

Terminators

Regions where RNA polymerases detach to end transcription.

Introns

Non-coding sequences within genes that are removed during RNA processing in eukaryotes.

Exons

Pieces of coding sequence within genes that are spliced together to form mature mRNA.

mRNA

Messenger RNA that carries the genetic information from DNA to the ribosome for protein synthesis.

Translation

The process of decoding the mRNA sequence to produce a functional protein.

Codons

Three-nucleotide sequences on mRNA that specify the amino acids to be incorporated into a protein.

Ribosomes

Protein synthesis machines composed of proteins

Coding region

The region of DNA that contains the instructions for making a protein, from the start codon to the stop codon.

Insulin

A protein hormone that regulates blood sugar levels. It consists of 51 amino acids.

Glucose

A simple sugar that serves as the primary source of energy for cells.

Diabetes

A condition characterized by high blood sugar levels due to insufficient insulin production or improper response to insulin.

Animal insulin

Insulin derived from animals, such as pigs, that is similar enough to human insulin in terms of amino acid sequence.

Protein folding

The process by which a protein adopts its specific three-dimensional shape, which is crucial for its function.

Frederick Sanger

A scientist who sequenced the first protein, insulin, and developed methods for determining nucleic acid sequences.

Cell cycle

The series of events that a cell goes through as it grows and divides, consisting of interphase and mitosis.

Interphase

The longest phase of the cell cycle, during which the cell carries out its normal functions and prepares for division.

Mitosis

The process of cell division in which the nucleus divides into two identical nuclei.

Checkpoints

Points in the cell cycle where the cell checks for proper conditions before proceeding to the next phase.

G1 phase

The first gap phase of interphase, during which the cell grows and prepares for DNA replication.

S phase

The synthesis phase of interphase, during which DNA replication occurs.

G2 phase

The second gap phase of interphase, during which the cell continues to grow and prepares for mitosis.

Proto-oncogenes

Genes that promote cell division and can become oncogenes when mutated, leading to uncontrolled cell division (cancer).

Tumor suppressor genes

Genes that normally inhibit cell division and can lead to cancer when mutated, as they lose their ability to regulate the cell cycle.

Apoptosis

Programmed cell death, which occurs when cells are damaged beyond repair or have mutations that could lead to cancer.

P53

A protein that plays a central role in DNA damage repair pathways and can pause the cell cycle to allow for DNA repair.

Cancer

A disease characterized by uncontrolled cell division and the formation of tumors.

Asexual reproduction

Reproduction that results in genetically identical offspring, or clones, of the parent organism.

Sexual reproduction

Reproduction that involves the combination of genetic material from two parents, resulting in genetically diverse offspring.

Gametes

Specialized cells involved in sexual reproduction, such as sperm and egg cells.

Gametes

Sperm and egg cells that have a different number of chromosomes than somatic cells.

Fertilization

The fusion of gametes, resulting in the creation of a new individual.

Sexual Reproduction

A type of reproduction in which organisms produce gametes that are differently sized and fuse to create offspring.