Psyc 2600 Midterm 2

In what unexpected ways to genes influence us?

Genes impact personality, attitudes and specific behaviours

What is Heritability?

The extent to which genetics predict behaviours, traits, etc., some degree to which genetic influence something

What does inherited mean?

A behaviour or trait is determined by genes, 100% determined by the inherited aspect

What is behavioural genetics?

Looks generally at the extent the genetic package given to individual at birth influences how they turn out as an adult, the influence of the genotype on the phenotype

What percent of gene differ across species?

Only

What is a personality characteristic of interest called?

the Phenotype

What is a set of genes called?

A genotype

What is an estimate of genotype on phenotype?

An estimate of heritability, can range from 0.0 (no influence) to 1.0 (variation in phenotypic scores in a given population is entirely predicted by variation in genotypes)

\-0.50 means 50% of variability in a phenotype in a given population is predicted by variation in genotypes

What does Heritability determine?

\-tied to a place and time, dependent on population and environment

\-if everyone in population has exactly the same environment then influence of genotypes will be greater

\-if there is a lot of variability in the population then the effect of genetics will be smaller

Are traits influenced by genotypes?

yes, but this does not mean genes influence behaviour directly, we know there is correlation we don’t know the mechanisms behind it

How can we estimate heritability?

\-Twin studies

\-MZ/identical share 100% of genes

\-DZ/fraternal share 50% of genes

\-can assess where twins score on a normal distribution, correlations could be due to genetic or being raise in same environment, everything else contributes to differences

What is an advantage of using MZ twins?

they share the same genes so differences in phenotypes can be attributed to environment

How can we use twins to calculate heritability?

* can estimate heritability as being two times that of MZ twins subtract DZ twins

What is the equal environment assumption?

MZ twins both share the same environment to the same extent as do DZ twins

How do we test the Equal Environment Assumption?

Look for differences between MZ twins reared together vs MZ twins reared apart vs DZ twins reared together

\-MZ reared apart unlikely to have the same environment as MZ reared together

\-if correlation of MZ reared apart looks like DZ reared together then assumption is violated

\-if correlation for MZ reared apart looks like MZ reared together then assumption is valid

What is a second way to test the Equal Environments Assumption?

\-Test DZs who thought they were MZs

\-look at correlation of Twin 1 to Twin 2 and see if it looks more like true MZs or true DZs

What influences traits?

Looking at the variance in traits in terms of genetic similarity, shared family environments and unique environmental influences

How do genetics influence traits?

\-leads individuals who are genetically similar to develop similar phenotypes

\-degree of similarity of genes corresponds to degree of similarity of phenotype

How do shared environments influence traits?

\-leads individuals in the same family to resemble each other on a phenotype for non-genetic reasons

\-if a phenotype were exclusively determined by shared environmental influences, we would see no differences in phenotype between MZ and DZ twins

How do unshared environments influence traits?

\-kids raised in same family may not experience same events, have same friends, etc.

How do we apportion the variability in phenotypes?

\-determine what percent is due to each factor

\-taking simple correlations between sample of twins and decomposing what is making them similar and different

\-causal model

\-heritability (h) + common environment (c) + unshared environment (u) = 100% of variance in phenotype

\-we can solve for h and c across samples of MZ and DZ twins measured on a trait

\-we assume the only difference between samples is degree of genetic similarity (z)

\-rmz = h + c

\-rdz = 1/2(h)+c

\-u = 1 - (h+c)

\-effect for genes about 40%

\-no effect for common environment

\-substantial effects for unshared environment about 50%

Is sexual orientation heritable?

Kinsey scale and childhood gender non conformity,

\-for males genetics are high but environment is low and vice versa in females suggesting women are more fluid in their sexual orientation, males more rigid one or other

What does high heritability not mean?

* that you cannot change
* ex. IQ can change
* flynn effect: IQ increases over generations
* interventions and improvements in education can increase IQ
* trait changes over time
* whether genes are expressed and how they are expressed can change over time
* genes are not destiny

What are the three central questions of evolutionary psychology?

1. what is human nature? - what are the patterns of behaviour held to be common across species?
2. why are these behaviour patterns common? what purpose do they serve?
3. What are the mechanisms that underlie these behaviour patterns? and how do they work?

What is evolutionary theory?

Argues that distinctive features of human nature (physical and psychological) have developed by small increments over many generations because of the selective advantage they gave our ancestors

\-advantage comes down to two things:

1 solving a problem for survival

2 successful reproduction

What drives evolutionary change?

* natural selection
* sexual selection
* genetic drift

What is the theory of natural selection?

For a species to evolve:


1. members of the species must differ
2. some of these variations must be to some significant degree heritable
3. organisms with the heritable variant leave more offspring because those attributes help with the tasks of survival or reproduction

\-assumes hostile forces of nature, environment is dangerous, if environment is not dangerous there can be no evolution because everyone is equally likely to reproduce

What is environment of evolutionary adaptedness (EEA)?

* states natural selection designed our ancestors to deal with challenges faced in environment
* mechanisms and adaptations developed then continue to exist as long as they are not disadvantageous to survival or reproduction
* evolution as a clue to what a recurrent problem was that the adaptation helped solve

What is an example of natural selection in humans?

* sympathetic nervous system arousal
* if threshold is too low you are always stressed, not good for reproduction
* if threshold is too high it doesn’t turn on until the threat is upon you
* those with “just right” range survive and reproduce, others weeded out

What is sexual selection theory?

* forces of nature push us to pass on genes, so we must mate
* some heritable characteristics give selective mating benefits to those who possess them like facial symmetry
* process leads to gradual change in species over many generations
* members of each sex compete within sex for access to best mates or most mates

What is intrasexual competition?

members of the same sex will compete for mating access

characteristics that reliably contribute to reproductive success will be passed on

therefore evolution can occur as a consequence of intrasexual competition

What is the Sexual Dimorphism Hypothesis?

* when sex differences in minimum obligatory parental investment determine which sex can sire more offspring


* this difference creates difference in variances in reproduction between sexes (difference between haves and have nots)
* variance in reproduction leads to different strategies for reproduction and dimorphisms (different shape, size, characteristics)
* male offspring often changes more in morphology as a result i.e. if strength is passed on offspring will get stronger
* also means those who aren’t getting chance to mate will have more dangerous ways to mate like rape OR they will work harder to gain attributes the successful males have

What is intersexual selection?

* if members of one sex have some consensus about qualities that are desirable in members of the opposite sex, then individuals of opposite sex possessing those qualities will be preferentially chosen as mates

What is genetic drift?

* random changes in genetic make up of population
* founder effects: a small, unrepresentative portion of population establishes a new colony
* genetic bottleneck: when a population shrinks owing to some random catastrophe

What are the types of products of evolution?

* Adaptations: exist due to natural/sexual selection because they helped solve a problem of survival or reproduction
* by-products: do no solve adaptive problems and do not have functional design
* random effects: effects produced by chance mutations, sudden shifts in environment, etc.

What is the challenge of products of evolution?

* categorizing: if an adaptation is should have a specific design, special features, show efficiency, economy, precision and reliability
* finding mechanism: evolved psychological mechanism is a set of processes inside an organism that:

\-exist in the form that is does because it helped solve a specific recurrent problem of survival or reproduction

\-takes a narrow slice of information as input and specifies for the organism the problem of adaptation

\-transforms that info into output through a decision rule in which output:

\-regulates physiological activity, provides info to other psych mechanisms or produces some action, and helps solve and adaptive problem

What traits do evolved psych mechanisms posess?

* specific: too general leads to errors
* numerous: each solves a particular problem
* functional: designed to accomplish particular adaptive goals

What is an example of differences in mechanism?

* mate seeking:


* men need fertile mate and evolved to pay attention to cues
* women need mate with resources who is willing to commit, women evolved mechanisms to detect these cues
* mate seeking preferences are pretty much the same across cultures between sexes
* women more likely to alter appearances to get mate
* men more likely to show off their resources
* seems to be evolution

What does age have to do with Mates?

* Females in every culture preferred older mate (average of 2.66 years) (age indicates status)
* males in every culture preferred young mates (average of 3.42 years) (indicates fertility)

What did Buss (1989) find?

* in 37 cultures on 5 continents, females in every culture rated good finances above good looks, males in every culture vice versa

How do the sexes attract mates?

* both use touch, humour, kindness


* men display resources, athleticism and strength, show off
* women alter appearance, wear nice clothes, wear jewelry

What is the mechanism behind jealousy?

* important to men beacuse if they have paternity uncertainty they could get stuck caring for someone else’s offspring and not get the chance to pass on their genetics
* women lose resources for offspring if man goes and has kids with someone else

What did Buss (1992) determine about jealousy?

* when asked whether a partner forming a deep emotional attachment with another person or a partner enjoying sex with another partner was more upsetting
* men: 40% said attachment 60 said sex
* women: 83% said attachment, 17% said sex
* may be because women need stability and men need to pass on genetics

What does the double shot hypothesis say about jealousy?

* women believe that for men sex without love is common therefore if he loves another then he is also having sex with them but not vice versa
* men believe that for women, sex without love is rare therefore if she is having sex without another partner she also loves him

How do we know culture is not the cause of these mechanisms?

evolutionary psychologists argue evolution predates culture and gives rise to culture, evolution pushes us in a certain direction and culture will conform to that

What evolved mechanism of jealousy?

input would be partner having sex with or in love with someone else (different for men and women)

process: checking up on partner, investigate

output: the behaviour

How could aggression be an evolved psych mechanism?

* difference in access to mates leads to ferocious intrasexual competition
* males will fight amongst each other for access
* those low on pecking order motivated to take bigger risk
* intrasexual competition leads to aggression in asserting or challenging dominance
* aggression can solve problems but at a cost (death, injury)
* don’t see this aggression women
* could have to do with parental investment theory
* males more aggressive in every category except verbal when compared to women
* male on male violence usually, 90% of same sex homicide was males
* happens in narrow age range (18-39)

What is young male syndrome?

* young men are particularly prone to engage in risky forms of aggression because in evolutionary history this is the age when men begin intrasexual competition for access to mates
* in detroit, killers and victims more likely to unemployed and unmarried
* this could be interpreted to mean that when lacking resources and without long term mates, young men are disadvantages in challenge of mate seeking take large risk hoping for big payoff

Where does men’s aggression against women come from?

* sexual jealousy major cause
* women in shelters often cite extreme jealousy as the reason
* men who kill often do so due to observation or suspicion of infidelity or woman trying to end relationship
* both represent loss of reproductive resource
* young women are often those who are killed (powerful cue to reproductive value)
* as women age the risk of violence declines

How is aggression functional?

* aggression is perceived as a way to reduce the jealousy by not allowing mate to leave or getting her to change her behaviour

How are women aggressive?

* women also have intrasexual competition but as the more investing sex there is less variance in reproduction
* less intense competition
* aggression is less frequently fatal

What are some other evolutionary mechanisms?

* social anxiety, related to self esteem which we get when we feel we belong to a group, feeling excluded creates social anxiety because in evolution if you didn’t belong to a group you were not protected and would die
* Depression might be a cue that things aren’t working out in life so you decrease the motivation for that goal and think about what isn’t working and reintegrate into something that will be more successful

What is frequency dependent selection?

* idea that evolution need to solve adaptive problem so we should all have the same mechanisms
* how does evolution explain for individual differences and traits that are bad for the group but good for the individual
* negative trait can continue to exist as long as they exist in small number, as soon as there are too many people then society starts to fall apart because we can’t trust anyone

What are the implications of evolutionary theory for human nature?

* context specific, applicable to recurrent problem of survival and reproduction in hostile environment
* biologically based
* mechanisms recognize certain cues and cues are interpreted as relevant to problem
* invokes a process, leading to output that helps solve the problem
* evolution tends to assume a non-thinking organism, inclinations to respond vs actual behavioural response

limitations of evolutionary appraoch?

1. can’t go back in time to our ancestor’s environment
2. limitations of current knowledge
3. todays environment very different from ancestor’s environment
4. easy to come up with alternative explanations for hypotheses
5. hypotheses untestable/can’t be falsified?

What is psychoanalytic theory about?

* partly causes of mental disorders
* explaining individual differences in how people develop certain traits and cope with life experiences

3 key assumptions about psychoanalytic theory

1. structure of mind includes conscious section, preconscious section, unconscious section, 3 players: id, ego and superego
2. mental energy
3. conflict

Explain the structure of the mind according to psychoanalytic theory

* conscious: what you are actively thinking of
* preconscious: things you can bring into conscious at your will like memories
* unconscious: things you have no access to, things that are happening that are buried deep in your mind, they can slip out through dreams or unconscious motivations

Explain the three players

1. Id: unconscious, dark, filled with mental energy, goal is to obtain satisfaction of instinctual desires and wishes, no logical, organized, no notion of time
2. ego: can go through all three areas, negotiator, problem solver, mediates between id, superego and environmental affordances, id is stronger than ego but ego must guide it where it will be satisfied
3. superego: can go through all three areas, conscience, source of guilt/shame, gives moral direction, inhibitor

What is mental energy?

* mind needs energy to make it work, energy in the form of drives/instincts (libido/thanatos), energy is a closed system (finite)
* libido - pleasure instinct
* thanatos - death instinct, motivation towards aggression and violence
* Recall ego depletion

According to psychoanalytic theory where does anxoety come from?

* conflict between the three players
* constant conflict between the players and what the environment provides
* results in anxiety or “neurosis”
* if conflict is between ego and super ego it is moral anxiety
* if between id and ego it is called neurotic anxiety

How do personality structures develop according to Freud

* when we’re born we are pleasure seeking organisms, born with id
* when a need is activated a tension is created which motivates behaviour aimed at reducing this tension

What happens to the three players during infancy?

* born with id
* can’t delay need, gradually have to learn to delay gratification (begins ego development)
* if infants needs are always immediately met ego development will be delayed

How is ego developed?

* develops to satisfy needs of id through one of 3 ways
* eliminate need by denying its existence
* redirect or modify it
* give in

How is the superego developed?

* represents parents and society’s values
* develops around age 5
* two parts:


1. conscience which acts as inhibitor
2. ego ideal which is the drive for perfection or approval
* super ego tries to impose standards on ego

What creates a healthy personality?

* ego needs to be a strong and effective mediator that can resolve the tension

How is personality determined according to Freud?

* by the way one satifies libido’s urges as one goes through the 5 psychosexual stages
* each stage has an erogenous zone and developmental task

Explain the oral stage

* between birth and 18 months


* pleasure zone is mouth
* task: develop ego (learn to delay gratification)
* if successful: trust
* unsuccessful: dependent or independent
* if over or under indulged child develops a fixation

Explain the anal stage

* 18 months - 4 yrs
* pleasure zone is anus
* task: develop self control through toilet training
* successful: mastery, self-control
* unsuccessful: “anal-retentive” resistant neat frugal or sting or under controlled
* fixation

Explain the phallic stage

* 4-6 yrs
* pleasure zone: genitalia
* task: development of superego (identify with same sex parent and repress desire for opposite sex parent), adopt gender roles
* traits: masculinity/femineity

What is oedipal complex?

* need to repress “love” for mom and identify with dad
* motivated by castration anxiety
* if successful, boy adopts father’s masculine moral/value system
* can’t beat him join him
* failing to do so results in weak super ego

What is the Electra complex?

* need to repress envy for dad/dislike for mom and identify with mom
* no strong motivation to do so and develop weaker super ego
* critiqued by Karen Horney, argued this is junk and women may have a different value system but it isn’t inferior just different

Explain the latency stage

* age 6-12
* no pleasure zone
* “quiet period” become sexually disinterested and develop same sex friendships
* task: drives need to be transformed through “sublimation” - reorient needs in new directions that are socially appropriate
* coping skills learned

Explain the genital stage

* puberty
* pleasure zone is genitals
* attach libido to real external objects like people, learn to develop loving relationships
* tasks: devote yourself to relationships and contributing to society
* achievement motivated, interpersonally warm

Why are fixations important?

* a clue that issue is not successfully resolved


* repression of unsolved issues ties up limited psychic energy leaving it unavailable for other stressors
* psychological disorders are a result of an ego that is too depleted trying to hold things back
* repressed issues sneak out in dreams, “accidents”, humour, symbolic behaviour and “freudian slips”

What is the goal of psychoanalysis?

* bring out unresolved issues to free up psychic energy
* through drean analysis
* free association
* talking cure
* hypnosis
* to understand a peron’s personality you need to resurrect their past to see how they resolved each developmental task
* every stage has conflict when it cant be resolved it is repressed and waits for a chance to re-emerge, this produce anxiety for ego and invokes defense mechanisms

What are the main defense mechanisms of the ego?

* repression: process where person forgets something they have experienced because it is too painful
* denial: refusal to believe
* regression: revert back to earlier stage
* projection: misattribute you feelings/thoughts to others
* sublimation: channel feelings into acceptable outlets

Criticisms of Freud’s model?

* emphasizes the dark side of humankind
* karen horney and penis envy - argued he misunderstood his patients
* erik erikson emphasis on id vs ego - stretches development out over lifespan
* can’t empirically test ideas because they study the unconscious
* how do we test personality development?
* how does one manipulate or measure defense mechanisms?

What did Erikson propose about psychosocial stages?

* personality develops as a person interacts with their ever-widening social environment
* conflicts are not sexual but interpersonal
* develop a sense of self by examining who we are in relation to others and society
* each stage involved a new challenge whose success or failure carries implications for adult personality
* self view and world view included

What psychosocial stage occurs during infancy?

* trust VS mistrust - can I trust caregivers to meet my needs?
* if yes: learns they can trust others
* if no: mistructful of others
* potentially set up for life long pattern, can still move onto next stage

What psychosocial stage occurs during toddlerhood?

* autonomy vs Shame/doubt
* develop a sense of control over environment
* freedom to explore vs parent restrictions

What psychosocial stage occurs during young childhood?

* initiative vs guilt
* child either takes initiative and sets goals to work towards or doesn’t and develops guilt

What psychosocial stage occurs during elementary school age?

* industry VS inferiority
* child begins to compare self to others and develops sense of achievement
* begins to understand what they are good at and take pride in it

What psychosocial stage occurs during adolesence?

* identity vs Role confusion
* develop sense of identity
* try out different identities to find self

What psychosocial stage occurs during young adulthood?

* intimacy vs isolation
* develop intimate committed relationships
* isolation: failure to form/maintain intimate relationships
* can also apply to friendships

What psychosocial stage occurs during adulthood?

* Generativity vs stagnation
* creating something meaningful in life (career, family), if not, crisis

What psychosocial stage occurs during old age?

* integrity VS despair
* looking back on life with a sense that you’ve had a good life or you regret the choices you made

What did Bowlby propose about attachment?

* claimed infants are hardwired to form a bond with caregivers because without it we would have less chance of survival (evolutionary adaptation)
* if caregiver is responsive the infant develops a sense of safety/security and can tolerate separation from caregiver
* otherwise infant develops separation anxiety or feels depressed/unloved, develop one of two insecure attachments:
* anxious: don’t know if caregiver is coming back
* avoidant: i can’t depend on anyone I have to do this by myself

What was observed from Ainsworth’s strange situation?

* three kinds of attachment styles
* secure (66%): comforted and happy when mom returns
* avoidant (15%): aloof pushes mom away
* anxious/ambivalent (15%): cry, protest, angry when mom returns

What is a securely attached child?

* sees caregiver as a secure base from which child can explore their environment
* child develops sense of confidence
* learns to trust and be comfortable with others
* values relationships
* views world a safe

What is a insecurely attached child?

* caregiver is not seen as a secure base
* child feels rejected, unloved or only loved when they do they “right” thing
* child develops an internal model where self is unworthy and world is a dangerous place
* relationships are tenuous, unsure if others will stick around

Does child attachment correspond with adult attachments?

* Hazan and Shaver (1987) claim bonds formed in adult romantic relationships are similar to bonds formed in infancy with parent
* both feel safe when other is nearby and responsive
* both engage in close bodily contact
* both feel insecure when other is inaccessible, etc.

What are the terms for adult attachment?

* secure
* dismissing (avoidant)
* preoccupied (anxious)

Are attachment styles stable over time?

* relatively stable but can be changed especially by negative life events

What is the role of the unconscious?

* cognitive unconscious: information gets into memory subliminally and can prime associated memories, what resides in unconscious is not necessarily threatening or unacceptable, things you’ve learned/overlearned to the point you can do them without thinking
* motivated unconscious: to what extent people are aware of the causes/reasons for their behaviour, unconscious priming of goals, stuff you put in your head without you even knowing its there

Give an example of unconscious priming

* Bargh (2001) gave participants word searches that were neutral or primed with performance words, those who got performance words did better on subsequent neutral word searches

What is ego depletion?

* when the limited energy resource of the ego is drained and cannot exert energy to other tasks

Give an example of ego depletion

* bringing participants into lab hungry, told to either eat radishes while smelling cookies, eat cookies or given nothing
* they then performed a difficult task (unsolvable puzzle)
* measured how long they persisted on task
* if depleted from eating radish and smelling cookies they quit faster, cookie group persisted as long as control group

What are the implications of ego depletion?

* most likely to give into impulses when ego is depleted

What can moderate ego depletion?

* incentives - bonus allows you to overcome depletion
* positive emotions - good mood increases ability to resist depletion
* implementation intentions - sat a goal