16.Pressures on the USSR

Introduction

The Khrushchev era in Eastern Europe was seen as allowing for differentiation within Communism - as long as the countries remained loyal to the USSR (staying in the Warsaw Pact and remaining a single party state) modifications to Communism were allowed.
This was why he conflicted with Zedong and the Chinese unitary approach to Communism.

Removal of Khrushchev

The Cuban Missile Crisis and the Berlin Crisis were total failures for the USSR.
His domestic policies had failed to improve standards of living.
Discontent was high - people should want Communism and it’s promising policies, but they were disappointed.
When Khrushchev was absent for 5 months between January and September 1964 a group of Party insiders led by Brezhnev planned his removal.
After he returned, in October, he was summoned to a meeting and attacked by other members of Soviet leadership and retired.

Brezhnev era

Brezhnev was appointed General Secretary but quickly consolidated power.
A time which the USSR reasserted itself as the leader of Communism.
Dissent was to be repressed in USSR and Eastern Europe.
However in 1964 and 68 there were movements in Eastern Europe demanding change.
Brezhnev focused on strengthening Easter Bloc economies - as economic progress was the key to stability.
He saw a stable Eastern Europe as vital for Soviet prosperity

Discontent

Although with the interest of stabilising the USSR, this was associated with corruption.
Economic decline and political repression continued and so discontent rose all across the USSR and East Europe.

The Czechoslovakia Crisis 1968

In 1963 negative growth was evident in Czechoslovakia - an economic downturn which led Czechoslovakia to reconsider their relationship with Communism.
Signs of revolt began in the 1960s - an economist, Ota Sik, proposed the reforms for a command economy.
-an end to centrally planned economic targets for the country.
-allowing individual enterprises to function.
-a Communist Party that would be responsive to the public.
-existence of consumer rights.
-the workforce having now power.

USSR response

The Communist Party wasn’t going to allow these changes.
In 1966 Sik argued for political reform as it was the only possibility for economic improvement.
He gained support from intellectuals and students, and then the wider public.
So the USSR felt changes needed to take place in Czechoslovak leadership to maintain a Communist government.

USSR response

In January 1968 the Communist leader Novotny was pressured into resigning and replace any Dubček - the Soviets we’re hoping he’d appeal to the minority and prevent protest.
In reality, he was an advocate of reform.
He quickly began to replace key officials with those who wanted reform, for example.
He also eliminated press censorship, exposing Eastern Europe to ‘democratic infection’ according to hardline Communists.

Action Programme/Prague Spring 1968

In April, Dubček announced the Action Programme, which stated the Communist Party’s determination to achieve with a distinct Czechoslovak path.
Therefore the country needed basic freedom of speech, press and movement, recognition for the state of Israel, and freedom for economic enterprises to make decisions based on consumer demand.
It also called for the recognition of civil liberties and personal freedom.
To protect his reforms Dubček assured that Czechoslovakia would remain in the Warsaw Pact.

Continuation

The USSR initially just watched to see how far Czechoslovakia would go, so when no clear opposition to the Action Programme arose Czech reformers took things further.
They ended press censorship completely, planned to open borders with the West and discussed a trade agreement with West Germany.
They continued to assure that Czechoslovakia was a loyal member of socialism and just wanted liberalisation within existing Communism.
Leaders of Warsaw Pact countries were concerned for their own countries.

Soviet invasion - build up

Warsaw Pact countries began military exercises in Czechoslovakia in late June.
They all expressed their concerns regarding the Czechoslovakia reforms.
A letter from the Warsaw Pact to Czechoslovakia argued that challenging socialism in one country threatened the entire socialist movement and therefore shouldn’t be tolerated.
Soviets tried to provoke a split in the Czech Communist Party so that a pro-Soviet group could emerge.
Despite promising to repeal the reforms Dukček continued his liberalisation.

Soviet invasion

Warsaw Pact forced invaded Czechoslovakia on 20-21 August.
Around 100 Czechoslovaks and Slovaks were killed and 500 wounded.
The invasion saw no international action, complaints came from within the Communist camp though - there were some protests in China and Romania against the invasion.
The USSR had violated the sovereignty and integrity of Czechoslovakia, and the chance of change through party led reform was undermined.

The Brezhnev Doctrine 1968

Brezhnev delivered a speech in November to the Polish Party Congress, stating that socialist countries should have freedom, but they shouldn’t damage socialism across the country or further.
He emphasised the responsibility of Communist states to intervene to protect the whole Communist community.
This was an attempt to justify his actions.

Czechoslovakia response

Thousands of Czechoslovaks still demonstrated on the streets of Prague in late 1968.
Soviets found to hard to find Czechoslovakian Communists willing to take countries of the regime.
Therefore Dubček remained in power until April 1969.
The new government, led by Husák, confirmed the Soviet line and remained in power until 1989.
Czechoslovakia was dependent on Soviet military presence to remain Communist - the Red Army remained in the country until 1990.

Relations with China

The Sino-Soviet alliance was defunct by 1962 due to tensions between Khrushchev and Zedong.
The alliance had previously represented global communist unity.
Zedong felt his position wasn’t respected by Soviets, and he also accused Khrushchev of deviating from the revolutionary path of socialism (revisionism).
Khrushchev however felt he should be leader of the entire Communist world.

Actions from Khrushchev

Indirectly supported India in border disputes with China 1959.
Withdrew technological aid from Chinese by removing Soviet experts 1960.
Refused to o his agreement of providing a prototype for an atomic bomb.
Didn’t notify China of his decision to place nuclear missiles in Cuba 1962.

Actions from Zedong

Provoked USA through bombing Taiwanese-held islands - Quemoy and Matsu.
Criticised Khrushchev for being unwilling to use nuclear weapons.
Criticised Khrushchev for removing missiles from Cuba.
Accused Khrushchev of abandoning the struggle against Capitalist imperialism by doing peaceful coexistence.

Further divisions

China then called for the return of territory that it claimed the USSR had occupied.
Khrushchev rejected this, but then his resignation in October 1964 put the decisions in the hands of Brezhnev who advocated positive relations with China.
This was due to the conflict in Vietnam - both sides had to settle their differences and support the North against US imperialism.
A representative was sent to China to establish unity, but this failed.
Zedong kept his view of the USSR as revisionist and was committed to hindering Soviet efforts to keep China inferior.

The Malinovsky incident

Further strained relations.
At Sino-Soviet talks in late 1964, the Soviet Defence minister Malinovsky suggested to a Chinese delegate that the Chinese should get rid of Zedong.
The talks immediately collapsed.

Vietnam

These Chinese claims were refuted however, when the USSR, in April 1965, requested a meeting with both China and North Vietnam to develop a collective response to the USA escalation of the Vietnamese war.
China resisted this and so a meeting never took place.
Zedong wanted the North to remain dependent on China and only China.
Furthermore, the USSR wanted to establish a Soviet air force base in China and station 12 fighter planes there to protect the Sino-Vietnamese border - but China saw this as a military intrusion.

The Cultural Revolution 1966 - China

Zedong embarked on this Cultural Revolution as a reaction to the drift away from ideological purity of his own Chinese revolution.
It was designed to restore ideological correctness.
It enabled Zedong to strengthen his power by justifying the elimination of potential rivals by claiming they were revisionists.

The Cultural Revolution 1966 - USSR

There was also a Soviet dimension in this.
For China, the USSR was led by revisionists and therefore was a target for ideological attack.
They used their frenzy displayed by young followers in the Chinese Red Guard to intimidate the USSR.
(USSR embassy in Beijing besieged by Red Guard mob led by a 16 y/o girl).

Border disputes

Due to increasing hostility from China the USSR stationed military forces in Mongolia and East Kazakhstan in Feb 1967.
This build up of forces alarmed China and reinforced their current views that the USSR intended to attack.
They therefore adopted active defence which was activated in March 1969:
limited aggression to deter Soviet aggression

Ending

Talks were held in Sept to reassure that both sides didn’t want war.
Zedong still felt insecure.
These talks failed to bring about improvements in relations.
Therefore this was time time Zedong began to improve relations with USA.
Efforts to reconcile the relations in the 1970s were failed.
China would always be inferior to the USSR in the relationship and resented this.