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Spinal cord functions
a pathway for sensory and motor impulses
responsible for reflexes
Spinal cord gray matter
centrally located resembling butterfly
Gray matter subdivisions
anterior horns
posterior horns
lateral horns
gray commissure
Anterior horns
house cell bodies of somatic motor neurons in skeletal muscle
Lateral horns
contain cell bodies of autonomic motor neurons in cardiac and smooth muscle and glands
Posterior horns
contain axons of sensory neurons and cell bodies of interneurons
Sensory nuclei
within the posterior horns containing somatic and visceral
Motor nuclei
within the anterior horns containing somatic motor nuclei
Autonomic motor nuclei
found within the lateral horns
Anterior root
contains motor axons only that arise in the anterior and lateral horns of spinal cord
Posterior root
contains sensory axons only that arise in the posterior root ganglion
Spinal nerve
formed by each anterior and its corresponding posterior root that unite within the intervertebral foramen
Posterior (dorsal) ramus
smaller of the 2 main branches and innervates the deep muscles and the skin of the back
Anterior (ventral) ramus
larger of the 2 main branches and innervates the trunk and the upper and lower limbs
Nerve plexuses
network of intersecting nerves formed by anterior rami
Rami communicates
branch of the anterior ramus that extends between the spinal nerve and sympathetic trunk ganglion
Reflexes
rapid, automatic, involuntary reactions of muscles or glands to a stimulus
Rapid response
requires few neurons to be involved and synaptic delay may be minimal
Involuntary response
requires no intent or pre-awareness of the reflex activity
Reflex arc
the neural wiring of a single reflex that always begins in the PNS and ends at a peripheral effector
Autonomic nervous system (ANS)
complex system of nerves that govern involuntary actions
Somatic nervous system (SNS)
works with the ANS to regulate body organs and maintain internal functions
Visceral motor system
an autonomic motor that controls glands, cardiac muscles and smooth muscles
Parasympathetic system (craniosacral division)
rest-and-digest
calming effect on body functions
SLUDD - salivation, lacrimation, urination, digestion, defecation
Sympathetic system (thoracolumbar division)
fight-or-flight
increases alertness and reduces blood flow to skin and digestive tract
E activities - exercise, excitement, emergency, embarrassment
Autonomic tone
background level of activity created by sympathetic and parasympathetic systems functioning simultaneously
Parasympathetic tone
maintains smooth muscle tone in intestines and holds resting heart rate down at 70-80 beats/min
Sympathetic tone
maintains blood pressure by keeping vessels partially restricted
Differences between parasympathetic and sympathetic neurons
Preganglionic axon length
Postganglionic axon length
Autonomic ganglion location
Postganglionic axon neurotransmitter release
ACh = Parasympathetic
ACh or NE = Sympathetic
Sensation
conscious awareness to stimuli/sensory information
General receptors
temperature, pain, touch, stretch, and pressure
distributed throughout skin and organs
Special receptors
gustation(taste), olfaction(smell), vision, equilibrium, and audition(hearing)
housed in complex organs in the head
Receptors
structures that receive stimuli in either external or internal body
Exteroceptors
found in skin or mucous membranes such as nasal and oral cavities, vagina, and anal canal
Interceptors
-found in the walls of viscera; detecting stretching, oxygen depravation, temperature, and pressure
Proprioceptors
found in muscles, tendons and joints; detecting body and limb movement, muscles contraction/stretching
Somatic sensory receptors
found within the body wall; they include receptors for chemicals, temperature, pain, touch, proprioception, and pressure
Visceral sensory receptors
found within the walls of the viscera; they respond to chemicals, temperature, and pressure
Special sense receptors
located only in the head
Chemoreceptors
detect specific dissolved chemicals
Thermoreceptors
detect changes in temperature
Photoreceptors
detect changes in light, color, or movement
Mechanoreceptors
react to touch, pressure, temp, and vibration stimuli
most numerous type of receptor
located in the dermis and subcutaneous layer of the skin
Gustatory cells
taste receptors housed in taste buds which are located on the dorsal surface of the tongue
Basal cells
stem cells
Gustatory microvillus (taste hair)
dendritic ending of each gustatory cell that extends through the taste pore
activated by taste molecules within the oral cavity
Olfactory epithelium
consists of olfactory receptor cells, supporting cells, and basal cells
Olfactory hairs
nerve endings at the apical end of olfactory receptors that project through the mucous covering the olfactory epithelium
Eye
spherical organ that is 2.5 centimeters in diameter
Fibrous tunic
contains cornea and sclera
Cornea
anterior part of eye, transparent, avascular
Sclera
makes up the majority of the fibrous tunic; considered the “white” of the eye and allows for the attachment of the extrinsic eye muscles to the eye
Vascular tunic
contains choroid, ciliary body, and iris
Choroid
contains a vast network of capillaries, which supply nutrients and oxygen to the retina
Ciliary body
composed of ciliary muscles and ciliary processes; ciliary muscles contract or relax shaping of the lens to focus incoming light onto the retina
Iris
pigmented part of the eye. Black hole is called the pupil, which allows light to pass on to the retina
Retina
contains pigmented layer attached to the choroid that absorbs light energy and the neural layer that houses photoreceptors and their neurons
Fovea Centralis
area of retina that contains the highest proportion of cones and almost no rods
sharpest area of vision
Optic disc
“blind spot” on retina
located where ganglion cell axons exit retina to form optic nerve
lacks photoreceptors
Anterior cavity of eye
between the lens and cornea and contains aqueous humour
Posterior cavity of eye
posterior to the lens and anterior to the retina and contains vitreous humour
Photoreceptor layer
outermost layer of neural layer composed or rods and cones
Bipolar cells
synapse with photoreceptors and ganglion cells of the neural layer
Ganglion cells
innermost layer of the retina
axons of these cells leave the retina and form the optic nerve
Auricle
skin covered, funnel-shaped, elastic cartilage supported structure of the outer ear
External acoustic meatus
bony tube located off of the auricle that ends at the tympanic membrane
Cerumen
a wax-like secretions produced by glands deep within the external auditory meatus
Middle ear
air-filled tympanic cavity just medial to the tympanic membrane
Malleus
auditory ossicles attached to tympanic membrane that articulates with incus
Incus
middle of the three bones articulating with the stapes
Stapes
auditory ossicle that fits into the oval window on the cochlea
Bony labyrinth
spaces within the petrous portion of the temporal bone
Vestibular complex
detects balance and rotation containing the vestibule and semicircular canals
Cochlea
hearing organ
contains cochlear duct, scala vestibuli(superior), and scala tympani(inferior)
Maculae structure
contains hair cells that are sensory receptors for balance
Stereocilia
stiff microvilli on the apical surface of each hair cell
bending translates into electrical activity sent to brain via vestibular nerve
Kinocilium
one long cilium
bending translates into electrical activity sent to brain via vestibular nerve
Otolithic membrane
gelatinous mass that covers the surface of the stereocilia and kinocilia
Ampulla
an expanded region located within each semicircular canal
Crista ampullaris
an elevated region that contains the hair cells
Cupula
an overlying gelatinous dome where hair cells are embedded
Spiral organ
located within the cochlear duct and detects movement of endolymph
consists of thick sensory epithelium that includes hair cells and supporting cells on the basilar membrane
Tectorial membrane
an overlying mass that the stereocilia of hair cells project into
Endocrine glands
ductless organs that secrete hormones into the bloodstream
Hormones
can only affect target cells or target organs that have receptors for a specific hormone
Endocrinology
the study of the structural components of the endocrine system, the hormones they produce, and the effects of the hormones of target organs
Peptide hormones
growth hormone
Steroid hormone
estrogen and testosterone
Biogenic amines
thyroid hormone
Feedback loop
self-adjusting mechanism that regulates hormone secretion
Negative feedback loop
stimulus starts the process, a hormone is secreted in response to the elevated stimulus, and the hormone reduces the stimulus
example: eating a meal
Positive feedback loop
stimulus does not produce an opposite and counteracting effect, stimulus continues the process
example: breast feeding
Hypothalamus
the master gland of the endocrine system and is the interface between the nervous system and the endocrine system
Endocrine functions controlled by the hypothalamus
release of regulatory hormones that control the anterior pituitary
secretes antidiuretic hormone and oxytocin from the posterior pituitary
controls the stimulation and secretion activities of the adrenal medulla
Pituitary gland
located inferior to the hypothalamus and divided into anterior and posterior parts
Infundibulum
the thin stalk connecting the pituitary gland to the hypothalamus
Hypothalamo-hypophyseal portal system
blood vessel network that regulatory hormones travel through to the anterior pituitary
Hormones in the anterior pituitary
TSH, PRL, ACTH, GH, FSH, LH, MSH
Pituitary dwarfism
low growth hormone(GH) from birth