Studied by 70 people
(most) definitions from myers' psychology 3e
neuron
nerve cell; basic building block of the nervous system
cell body (soma)
the part of the neuron that contains the nucleus; is the “life support center” of the cell
dendrites
a neuron's often bushy, branching extensions that receive and integrate messages, conducting impulses toward the cell body
axon
neuron extension that passes messages through branches to other neurons, muscles, or glands
myelin sheath
a fatty tissue layer segmentally encasing the axons of some neurons; enables vastly greater transmission speed as neural impulses hop from one node to the next
glial cells (glia)
cells in the nervous system that support, nourish, and protect neurons; also plays role in learning, thinking, and memory
action potential
a neural impulse; a brief electrical charge that travels down an axon
threshold
the level of stimulation required to trigger a neural impulse
refractory period
a brief resting pause that occurs after a neuron has fired; subsequent action potentials cannot occur until the axon returns to its resting state.
all-or-none response
a neuron's reaction of either firing (with a full-strength response) or not firing
synapse
the junction between the axon tip of the sending neuron and the dendrite or cell body of the receiving neuron; also known as synaptic gap/synaptic cleft
neurotransmitters
chemical messengers that cross the synaptic gaps between neurons; when released by the sending neuron, they travel across the synapse and bind to receptor sites on the receiving neuron, influencing whether that neuron will generate a neural impulse.
reuptake
a neurotransmitter’s reabsorption by the sending neuron
endorphins
neurotransmitter linked to pain control and pleasure
agonist
a molecule that increases a neurotransmitter’s action
antagonist
a molecule that inhibits or blocks a neurotransmitter’s action
nervous system
the body's fast electrochemical-communication network, consisting of all the nerve cells of the peripheral and central nervous systems
nerves
bundled axons that form neural cables connecting the central nervous system with muscles, glands, and sense organs
central nervous system (CNS)
the brain and spinal cord
peripheral nervous system (PNS)
the sensory and motor neurons that connect the central nervous system (CNS) to the rest of the body
somatic nervous system
the division of the peripheral nervous system that controls the body's skeletal muscles; also called the skeletal nervous system
autonomic nervous system (ANS)
the part of the peripheral nervous system that controls the glands and the muscles of the internal organs (such as the heart).
Its sympathetic division arouses; its parasympathetic division calms.
sympathetic nervous system
division of autonomic nervous system that arouses the body, mobilizing energy
parasympathetic nervous system
division of autonomic nervous system that calms the body (conserves energy)
sensory (afferent) neurons
neurons that carry incoming information from the body's tissues and sensory receptors to the brain and spinal cord
motor (efferent) neurons
neurons that carry outgoing information from the brain and spinal cord to the muscles and glands
interneurons
neurons within the brain and spinal cord; they communicate internally and process information between the sensory inputs and motor outputs
reflex
a simple, autonomic response to sensory stimulus (ex. knee-jerk response)
endocrine system
the body's "slow" chemical communication system; a set of glands that secrete hormones into the bloodstream
hormones
chemical messengers that are manufactured by the endocrine glands, travel through the bloodstream, and affect other tissues
adrenal glands
pair of endocrine glands that sit just above the kidneys and secrete hormones (epinephrine and norepinephrine) that help arouse the body in times of stress
pituitary gland
endocrine system's most influential gland; under the influence of the hypothalamus, it regulates growth and controls other endocrine glands
lesion
tissue destruction; is a naturally or experimentally caused destruction of brain tissue
EEG (electroencephalogram)
an amplified recording of the waves of electrical activity sweeping across the brain's surface. These waves are measured by electrodes placed on the scalp
MEG (magnetoencephalography)
a brain imaging technique that measures magnetic fields from the brain's natural electrical activity
CT (computed tomography) scan (CAT scan)
a series of X-ray photographs taken from different angles and combined by computer into a composite representation of a slice of the brain's structure
PET (positron emission tomography) scan
a visual display of brain activity that detects where a radioactive form of glucose goes while the brain performs a given task
MRI (magnetic resonance imaging)
a technique that uses magnetic fields and radio waves to produce computer-generated images of soft tissue; show brain anatomy
fMRI (functional MRI)
a technique for revealing blood flow and, therefore, brain activity by comparing successive MRI scans; show brain function as well as structure.
brainstem
the oldest part and central core of the brain; is responsible for automatic survival functions (heartbeat and breathing); involved in focus of attention patterns of arousal
medulla
the base of the brainstem; controls vital autonomic functions such as heartbeat, blood pressure, and breathing
reticular formation
a nerve network that travels through the brainstem into the thalamus and plays an important role in controlling arousal
cerebellum
the "little brain" at the rear of the brainstem; functions include processing sensory input, coordinating movement output and balance (motor movements), and enabling nonverbal learning and (muscle) memory
limbic system
neural system (including the amygdala, hypothalamus, and hippocampus) located below the cerebral hemispheres; associated with emotions and drives (fighting, feeding, fleeing, & reproductive behavior); regulates emotions
thalamus
the brain's sensory control center, located on top of the brainstem; it directs messages to the sensory receiving areas in the cortex and transmits replies to the cerebellum and medulla
hypothalamus
connects with other regions of the brain; responsible for control of hunger, thirst, emotions, body temperature regulation, and circadian rhythms
amygdala
an almond-shaped structure; involved in the experience of negative emotions (ex. fear and anger)
hippocampus
part of the limbic system that processes conscious, explicit memories; decreases in size and function as we age
cerebral cortex
outer layer of the brain that was the last part to evolve; responsible for executive functioning, thinking; is divided up into parts (lobes)
frontal lobe
portion of cerebral cortex located behind the forehead; associated with higher level cognition, reasoning, expressive language/speaking, and motor skills
parietal lobe
middle section of cerebral cortex; associated with sensory (tactile) information (ex. pressure, touch, and pain)
occipital lobe
the portion of the cerebral cortex lying at the back of the head; includes areas that receive information from the visual fields
temporal lobe
the portion of the cerebral cortex lying roughly above the ears; includes the auditory areas, each receiving information primarily from the opposite ear
motor cortex
an area at the rear of the frontal lobes that controls voluntary movements
somatosensory cortex
an area at the front of the parietal lobes that registers and processes body touch and movement sensations
broca’s area
left frontal hemisphere
broca’s aphasia
a condition where you know what you want to say and can understand others’ words but cannot make the words
wernicke’s area
usually located in the left temporal lobe
wernicke’s aphasia
a condition where you may be saying words that do not make sense; can’t understand others and do not know what you are trying to communicate
aphasia
loss of ability to understand or express speech caused by brain damage
association areas
areas of the cerebral cortex that are not involved in primary motor or sensory functions; involved in higher mental functions such as learning, remembering, thinking, and speaking
plasticity
the brain's ability to change, especially during childhood, by reorganizing after damage or by building new pathways based on experience
neurogenesis
the formation of new neurons
corpus callosum
the large band of neural fibers connecting the two brain hemispheres and carrying messages between them
split brain
a condition resulting from surgery that isolates the brain's two hemispheres by cutting the fibers (mainly those of the corpus callosum) connecting them
consciousness
subjective awareness of ourselves and our environment
cognitive neuroscience
the interdisciplinary study of the brain activity linked with cognition; includes perception, thinking, memory, and language
dual processing
the principle that information is often simultaneously processed on separate conscious and unconscious tracks
blindsight
a condition in which a person can respond to a visual stimulus without consciously experiencing it
parallel processing
processing many aspects of a problem simultaneously; the brain's natural mode of information processing for many functions
sequential processing
processing one aspect of a problem at a time; generally used to process new information or to solve difficult problems
behavior genetics
the study of the relative power and limits of genetic and environmental influences on behavior
heredity
the genetic transfer of characteristics to offspring from parents
environment
every nongenetic influence, from prenatal nutrition to the people and things around us
chromosomes
threadlike structures made of DNA molecules that contain the genes
DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid)
a complex molecule containing the genetic information that makes up the chromosomes
genes
the biochemical units of heredity that make up the chromosomes; segments of DNA capable of synthesizing proteins
genome
the complete instructions for making an organism, consisting of all the genetic material in that organism's chromosomes
identical (monozygotic) twins
develop from a single fertilized egg that splits in two, creating two genetically identical organisms
fraternal (dizygotic) twins
develop from separate fertilized eggs; are genetically no closer than ordinary brothers and sisters, but they share a prenatal environment
heritability
the proportion of variation among individuals in a group that we can attribute to genes; may vary depending on the range of populations and environments studied
interaction
the interplay that occurs when the effect of one factor (such as environment) depends on another factor (such as heredity)
molecular genetics
the subfield of biology that studies the molecular structure and function of genes
molecular behavior genetics
the study of how the structure and function of genes interact with our environment to influence behavior
epigenetics
prefix meaning "above" or "in addition to”; the study of environmental influences on gene expression that occur without a DNA change
evolutionary psychology
the study of the evolution of behavior and the mind, using principles of natural selection
natural selection
the principle that inherited traits that better enable an organism to survive and reproduce in a particular environment will (in competition with other trait variations) most likely be passed on to succeeding generations.
mutation
a random error in gene replication that leads to a change
social scripts
a culturally modeled guide for how to act in various situations
consciousness
subjective awareness of ourselves and environment
sleep
periodic, natural loss of consciousness
circadian rhythm
bodies’ biological clock; regular body rhythms that occur on a 24 hour cycle
REM (rapid eye movement) sleep
recurring sleep stage when vivid dreams commonly occur; “paradoxical sleep”, when muscles are relaxed but other body systems are active
NREM-1
brief, near-waking sleep with irregular brain waves (theta waves); will only experience this stage once a night, may experience hallucinations or hypnagogic moments
NREM-2
stage in which we are in very light sleep and can easily be woken up; sleep spindles and theta waves occur
NREM-3
deep sleep where we are hard to wake up when in this stage; experience slow delta waves (sleepwalking or night terrors in this stage)
hallucinations
false sensory experiences that occur without a sensory stimulus
hypnagogic sensations
bizarre experiences while transitioning to sleep (ex. falling or floating sensation)
suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN)
pair of cell clusters in hypothalamus; controls circadian rhythms + responds to light
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