POL 104 - Final Exam Study Guide P1

Bill of Rights and its incorporation to the states

Initially constrained the federal government, the Bill of Rights has been applied to the states through the Fourteenth Amendment, establishing protections for individual liberties at both state and federal levels.

First Amendment Freedoms

Religion, Speech, Press, Assembly, Petition

Establishment Clause

A provision in the First Amendment that prohibits the government from establishing an official religion or unduly favoring one religion over another.

Free Exercise Clause

A provision in the First Amendment that protects individuals' rights to practice their religion freely without government interference.

Freedom of Speech Limitations and Tests

Legal restrictions on speech, including obscenity, defamation, and incitement.

Criminal Procedure Rights

Search and seizure, self-incrimination, right to counsel

Right to Privacy

unenumerated right, implied by various amendments in the Bill of Rights, that protects an individual's personal life from government intrusion.

Griswold v. Connecticut (1965)

Established the right to marital privacy regarding contraception, identifying a "penumbra" of rights.

Roe v. Wade (1973)

Extended the right to privacy to a woman's decision to have an abortion, though its protections have been significantly altered by later rulings.

Lawrence v. Texas (2003)

Struck down sodomy laws, affirming privacy and liberty in intimate personal conduct.

Obergefell v. Hodges (2015)

Incorporated the right to marry for same-sex couples, rooted in part in the liberty and privacy protections of the Fourteenth Amendment.

Equal Protection under the law

A provision in the Fourteenth Amendment that mandates states to treat all individuals within their jurisdiction equally under the law.

Civil Rights Movement

A pivotal period (roughly from the mid-1950s to the late 1960s) in American history focused on ending racial segregation and discrimination against African Americans, and securing equal rights under the law.

Civil Rights Act of 1964

Outlawed discrimination based on race, color, religion, sex, or national origin, particularly in public accommodations, employment, and federally funded programs.

Voting Rights Act of 1965

Prohibited racial discrimination in voting, notably banning literacy tests and other methods used to disenfranchise African Americans.

Discrimination based on Gender

Prohibited by laws like Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 and the Equal Pay Act of 1963, addressing unequal treatment in employment, pay, and other areas based on sex.

Discrimination based on Disability

Addressed by the Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) of 1990, which prohibits discrimination against individuals with disabilities in all areas of public life, including employment, transportation, public accommodations, and state and local government services.

Discrimination based on Sexual Orientation and Gender Identity

While not explicitly enumerated in early civil rights acts, federal courts, particularly in Bostock v. Clayton County (2020), have interpreted Title VII's prohibition against sex discrimination to include discrimination based on sexual orientation and gender identity.

Affirmative Action Policies

Policies designed to address past and present effects of discrimination by promoting equal opportunity, particularly in employment and education, for historically disadvantaged groups. These policies have been subjects of significant controversy and numerous Supreme Court challenges.

Plessy v. Ferguson (1896)

A landmark Supreme Court decision that upheld the constitutionality of racial segregation under the "separate but equal" doctrine, providing a legal basis for Jim Crow laws until it was overturned.

Brown v. Board of Education (1954)

A unanimous Supreme Court decision that declared state-sponsored segregation of public schools unconstitutional, fundamentally overturning "separate but equal" and signaling the beginning of the end for segregation in other public facilities.

Regents of the University of California v. Bakke (1978)

A Supreme Court case that ruled that while affirmative action was constitutional, the university's use of a quota system in medical school admissions was not. It allowed race to be one of several factors in admissions decisions, but not the sole factor.

Bostock v. Clayton County (2020)

A landmark Supreme Court decision that held that Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 prohibits employment discrimination based on sexual orientation or gender identity, interpreting "sex" discrimination to include these categories.

Public Opinion

The collective attitudes and beliefs of individuals on political issues, shaped by socialization, events, media, and political institutions.

Public Opinion Poll

A systematic survey of a sample of the population to estimate the beliefs of the broader public; accuracy depends on sampling methods and question wording.

Margin of Error

A statistical measure indicating how much poll results may differ from the true population opinion; smaller margins mean more accurate estimates.

Sampling / Random Sample

A method where everyone has an equal chance of being chosen — makes polls more accurate.

Focus Group

A small discussion group used to understand why people hold certain views.

Political Socialization

How people develop political beliefs (family, school, media, peers).

Media’s Role in Politics

The media informs the public, sets the agenda, and influences how issues are viewed.

Agenda-Setting

Media decides what issues people think about by choosing what to cover.

Framing

How media frames an issue, influencing how the public interprets it.

Media Bias

When news outlets show a political slant in how they cover stories.

Media Ownership Concentration

A few large companies owning most media — limits viewpoint diversity.

Disinformation

False information spread intentionally to deceive.

Social Media’s Political Impact

Speeds up information spread, increases polarization, and creates echo chambers.

Two-Party System

The U.S. political system dominated by Democrats and Republicans due to historical development, electoral rules, and winner-take-all elections.

Party Realignment

Long-term shifts in party coalitions that reshape the two-party system (key to understanding evolution).

Party Identification

A voter’s psychological attachment to a political party; strongest predictor of voting behavior.

Party Platforms

Statements of party beliefs and policy goals; reflect ideological differences between parties.

Third Parties

Smaller parties that rarely win but influence major parties by raising new issues.

Structural Barriers for Third Parties

Winner-take-all elections + ballot access rules that make third-party success difficult.

Interest Groups

Organizations that try to influence government policy outside of elections.

Interest Group Tactics

Lobbying, campaign contributions, grassroots mobilization, and litigation.

Iron Triangle

Relationship between interest groups, congressional committees, and bureaucratic agencies that shapes policy.

Political Participation

Any activity meant to influence government (voting, protesting, contacting officials).

Voter Turnout Factors

Education, age, income, interest, mobilization efforts, and election rules shape who votes.

Primary vs. Caucus

Primaries = statewide voting;
Caucuses = local meetings.
Both select party nominees for president.

Electoral College

System where states award electors; candidate needs a majority to win presidency.

Electoral College Criticisms

Popular vote can lose; unequal state influence; focus on swing states.

Campaign Strategies

Targeting voters, managing media, fundraising, and message framing.

Modern Campaign Technology

Data analytics, social media, microtargeting, and digital ads used to mobilize and persuade voters.

Constitutional Powers of Congress

Makes laws, controls budget, declares war, oversees executive branch.

Bicameralism

House = population-based, short terms, more majoritarian.
Senate = equal representation, longer terms, more deliberative.

Congressional Elections

House elected every 2 years; Senate elected in staggered 6-year terms (⅓ at a time).

Committee System

Small groups that handle legislation and oversee agencies; where most work gets done.

Congressional Leadership

Speaker (House), Majority/Minority leaders, Whips — organize agenda and party strategy.

How a Bill Becomes Law

Draft → committee → floor vote → other chamber → conference (if needed) → president.

Congressional Oversight

Monitoring the executive branch through hearings, investigations, and budget control.

Presidential Powers

Constitutional: commander-in-chief, veto, appointments, treaties, execute laws.
Informal: persuasion, executive orders, national leadership.

Growth of Presidential Power

Expanded through crises, wars, bureaucracy growth, and increased public expectations.

Executive Office of the President (EOP)

Key advisory/administrative units supporting the president (e.g., NSC, OMB).

Presidential Leadership

Effectiveness depends on political skill, public support, and relationships with institutions.

President–Congress Relations

Cooperation and conflict shaped by partisanship, veto threats, and bargaining.

President–Judiciary Relations

Courts can limit presidential actions; presidents influence courts through appointments.

Executive Orders & Signing Statements

Tools to direct policy without new legislation; can expand influence over agencies.

Impeachment Process

House impeaches; Senate holds trial and decides removal.