AP Psychology Units 1-5

Humanist Perspective

Emphasizes choice and free will, personal growth, and self-actualization as essential components of psychological health.

Psychodynamic Perspective

Focuses on the influence of the unconscious mind, childhood experiences, and interpersonal relationships on behavior.

Biopsychology Perspective

Explains human thought and behavior through biological processes.

Evolutionary Perspective

Examines human thoughts and actions in terms of natural selection, suggesting traits are picked for an increased chance of survival.

Behavioral Perspective

Explains human thoughts and behavior in terms of conditioning, including rewards, punishment, and responses to stimuli.

Cognitive Perspective

Examines human thoughts and behavior by how we interpret, process, and remember environmental events.

Social-Cultural Perspective

Looks at how thoughts and behaviors vary among cultures, and how culture influences actions.

Biopsychosocial Perspective

Acknowledges that human thinking and behavior arise from biological, social, and psychological factors.

Eclectic View

The view that psychologists adapt their approach based on the situation and required perspective.

Hindsight Bias

The tendency for people to believe they 'knew it all along' after an event has occurred.

Confirmation Bias

The tendency to pay more attention to information that supports preexisting ideas.

Overconfidence

The tendency for individuals to be overly confident in their beliefs.

Quantitative Research

Research involving the use of numerical data.

Qualitative Research

Research that involves descriptive data to provide insights into participants' perspectives.

Hypothesis

A testable prediction that expresses the relationship between two variables.

Dependent Variable

The outcome being measured in a study.

Independent Variable

The variable that is manipulated to study its effect on the dependent variable.

Falsifiable

A hypothesis must be able to be proven false.

Operational Definition

Describes how a specific variable will be measured in a study.

Replication

The requirement for research findings to be repeatable.

Sample

A group of participants selected for a study.

Population

The entire group from which a sample is drawn.

Representative Example

A sample that accurately represents the larger population.

Random Sampling

Each member of the population has an equal chance of being selected.

Convenience Sampling

Sampling from easily accessible participants.

Stratified Sampling

A method ensuring the sample represents the population based on certain criteria.

Confounding Variables

Variables that can affect the relationship between the independent and dependent variables.

Random Assignment

Assigning participants to groups randomly to control for confounding variables.

Experimenter Bias

When researchers inadvertently treat experimental and control groups differently.

Double-Blind Study

A study where both the researcher and participants do not know which group is which.

Single-Blind Study

A study where participants do not know to which group they belong.

Social Desirability Bias

When participants provide answers that reflect well on themselves.

Hawthorne Effect

Changes in behavior that occur when individuals know they are being observed.

Placebo Method

Providing a control group with a harmless version of a treatment to see effects.

Positive Correlation

The presence of one variable predicts the presence of another.

Negative Correlation

The presence of one variable predicts the absence of another.

Quasi Experimental Study

A study that seeks to control aspects of an experiment without random assignment.

Likert Scales

Surveys that ask participants to express agreement or disagreement with presented statements.

Directionality Problem

The inability to determine which variable caused a change.

Third Variable

An unknown variable influencing a correlation between two studied variables.

Naturalistic Observation

Observing subjects in their natural environments without interaction.

Structured Interview

A survey with a fixed set of questions that may be quantitative.

Case Study

A qualitative research method that follows a participant or small group over time.

Cental Tendency

Ways to mark the center of a distribution, commonly mean, median, and mode.

Mean

The average score calculated by dividing the total of all scores by the number of scores.

Median

The middle score in a distribution when all scores are arranged in order.

Mode

The score that appears most frequently in a data set.

Bimodal Distribution

When two scores appear equally frequently in a distribution.

Positively Skewed

A distribution with an extreme high score.

Negatively Skewed

A distribution with an extreme low score.

Range

The difference between the highest and lowest scores in a distribution.

Standard Deviation

A measure of how spread out the scores are from the mean.

Z-Scores

Indicates how many standard deviations a score is from the mean.

Normal Curve

The theoretical bell-shaped curve in statistics.

Percentiles

Indicates the distance of a score from the mean in standard deviations.

Correlation Coefficient

A numerical measure of the strength and direction of a relationship.

Scatterplot

Graphical representation of correlations between two variables.

P-value

Indicates statistical significance; smaller values indicate more significant results.

Effect Size

Indicates the practical significance of a research finding.

Replication Crisis

The current issue of many scientific studies failing to be replicated successfully.

Meta-Analysis

Combines results of many studies to approximate an average effect.

Peer Review

A process by which scientific work is evaluated by others in the field.

Animal Research Ethical Guidelines

Research must have a clear purpose, limit harm, and animals must be acquired legally.

Human Research Ethical Guidelines

Includes no coercion, informed consent, confidentiality, and debriefing.

Genetic Predisposition

Increased likelihood of developing a trait based on one's genetic makeup.

Twins in Psychological Research

Identical twins are often used to study nature vs. nurture due to similarities.

Neurons

Individual nerve cells that make up the nervous system.

Dendrites

Rootlike parts of neurons that receive messages from other cells.

Cell Body (Soma)

Contains the nucleus and other parts vital for neuron life.

Axon

The elongated fiber that transmits impulses away from the cell body.

Myelin Sheath

The fatty covering that speeds up neural impulses.

Terminal Buttons

The end of an axon that contains neurotransmitters.

Synapse

The gap between neurons where communication occurs.

Neural Transmission

The process of transmitting messages through neurons.

Resting Potential

The state of a neuron when it is not firing, typically negatively charged.

Action Potential

The electrical impulse that travels down an axon.

Threshold

The level of stimulation required to trigger an action potential.

Depolarization

The process during an action potential when the charge inside the neuron becomes positive.

Excitatory Neurotransmitters

Neurotransmitters that increase the likelihood a neuron will fire.

Inhibitory Neurotransmitters

Neurotransmitters that decrease the likelihood a neuron will fire.

Dopamine

A neurotransmitter associated with movement and alertness.

Serotonin

A neurotransmitter that contributes to mood regulation.

Norepinephrine

A neurotransmitter involved in arousal and alertness.

Glutamate

An excitatory neurotransmitter important for memory.

GABA

An inhibitory neurotransmitter that regulates anxiety.

Endorphins

Neurotransmitters that help control pain.

Acetylcholine

A neurotransmitter involved in learning and memory.

Sensory Neurons

Neurons that carry messages from the senses to the brain.

Interneurons

Neurons that connect sensory and motor neurons.

Motor Neurons

Neurons that carry messages from the brain to the rest of the body.

Central Nervous System

The part of the nervous system that includes the brain and spinal cord.

Peripheral Nervous System

The part of the nervous system that connects the CNS to the rest of the body.

Somatic Nervous System

A part of the PNS that controls voluntary muscle movements.

Autonomic Nervous System

A part of the PNS that controls involuntary functions.

Sympathetic Nervous System

Prepares the body for fight or flight responses.

Parasympathetic Nervous System

Calms the body and restores it to a state of rest.

Reflex Arc

The pathway that a reflex travels, involving the spinal cord.

Endocrine System

Glands that secrete hormones into the bloodstream.

Hormones

Chemical messengers that affect various bodily functions.

Adrenaline

A hormone that prepares the body for stress-related activities.