AP Psychology Units 1-5

Unit 0

Chapter One Psychological Perspectives

• Humanist Perspective - (Abraham Maslow and Carl Rogers) stresses the idea of choice and free will. It emphasizes personal growth and self-actualization as essential components of psychological health.

• Psychodynamic Perspective - (Sigmund Freud) focuses on the influence of the unconscious mind, childhood experiences, and interpersonal relationships on behavior and mental health. We repress our dark deep desires.

• Biopsychology (Neuroscience) Perspective - Biological processes explain human thought and behavior.

• Evolutionary (Darwinian) Perspective - Examines human thoughts and actions in terms of natural selection. Traits are picked for an increased chance of survival.

• Behavioral Perspective - Behaviorists explain human thoughts and behavior in terms of conditioning. This can mean rewards, punishment, and responses to stimuli.

• Cognitive Perspective - Examines human thoughts and behavior in terms of how we interpret, process and remember environmental events. Rules we use to view the world.

• Social-Cultural (Sociocultural) Perspective - Look at how thoughts and behaviors vary among cultures, and how culture influences the way we act.

• Biopsychosocial Perspective - Modern perspective that acknowledges human thinking and behavior comes from the biological, social and psychological factors.

• Eclectic View - Psychologists say that the point of view they will take depends on the situation and what perspective it calls for.

Chapter Two Research Methods

• Hindsight Bias - The tendency for people to believe they “knew it all along”.

• Confirmation Bias - Tendency to pay more attention to information that supports our preexisting ideas in studies and research.

• Overconfidence - People tend to be overconfident about what they believe.

• Quantitative Research - Research using numbers.

• Qualitative Research - Research involving descriptive data that offers insights into participants' perspectives, feelings, and motivations.

• Hypothesis - A testable prediction that expresses the relationship between two variables.

• Dependent Variable - Outcome being measured in a study

• Independent Variable - Variable being manipulated to study the dependent variable

• Falsifiable - Hypothesis must be able to be proven false.

• Operational Definition - Explain how you will measure something Ex. A study on sleep, researcher might define sleep deprivation as less than four hours.

• Replicated - Research must be able to be replicated.

• Sample - Group of participants

• Population - Group sample will be selected from

• Representative Example - Example that can represent the larger population.

• Random Sampling - Every member of the population has an equal chance of being selected.

• Convenience Sampling - Sampling that is collected from people who are easily accessible to you.

• Stratified Sampling - Process that allows researcher to make sure sample represents the population on some criteria. Ex. every race.

Experimental Method

• Includes laboratory and field experiments

• Researcher manipulates independent variable and controls confounding variables.

• Confounding variables - Variables that are any difference between the experimental and control group. Ex. Situation, sex, gender, IQ.

• Random Assignment - Each participant has an equal chance of being placed in either group. Limits confounding variables.

• Experimenter Bias - Tendency for researchers to treat experimental/control groups differently, not consciously. Double-Blind eliminates this.

• Double-Blind Study - Both researcher and participants don’t know experimental and control groups.

• Single-Blind Study - Participants do not know who is in the control/experimental groups.

• Social Desirability Bias - Response bias where participant gives answers that reflect well upon themself.

• Hawthorne Effect - Selecting a group of individuals to experiment is determined to affect the performance of the group, regardless of what is done to the individuals.

• Placebo Method - Whenever experimental needs to ingest something, control gets a harmless version that they may experience “effects” from. (Placebo Effect)

Correlational Method

• Positive Correlation - Presence of one thing in an experiment predicts the presence of another.

• Negative Correlation - Presence of one thing in an experiment predicts absence of another.

• Quasi Experimental Study - Seeking to control all aspects of an experimental study

• Likert Scales - Used on surveys, pose a statement and ask people to express their agreement/disagreement with it.

• Directionality Problem - Inability to tell which variable came first. Ex. Does watching tv cause aggression, or does aggression cause watching tv.

• Third Variable - Some third variable creating a correlation between experimental and control we don’t know about.

• Naturalistic Observation - Observing people in their natural habitats without interacting with them to get unfiltered results.

• Structured Interview - Survey with fixed set of questions, can be completely quantitative if there are set answer choices. Interviews can also be semi-structured or not structured to receive uncontrolled data.

• Case Study - Type of qualitative research method used to follow a participant or small group of participants.

Chapter 3: Statistics

Descriptive Statistics, describe set of data

• Cental Tendency - Ways to mark center of a distribution (or attempt to). Types are mean, median, and mode.

• Mean - Average of all scores divided by number of scores

• Median - Line scores up and find middle score, or average of two middle scores.

• Mode - Score that appears most frequently

• Bimodal - Type of distribution where two scores appear equally frequently and more frequently than any other score.

When a distribution includes outliers, best to use median.

Unless distribution is symmetrical, than it is skewed.

• Positively Skewed - When an extreme score in a distribution is very high

• Negatively Skewed - When an extreme score in a distribution is very low

• Range - Distance between highest and lowest scores

• Standard Deviation - Square root of the variance

• Z-Scores - How far away (In standard deviations) a score is from the mean. For example, if mean is 80 and you score a 72, you are -1 standard devation away. If you score an 84, you are +.5 away,

• Normal Curve - Theoretical bell shaped curve for which the area under the curve has been predetermined. 68% of score fall within one standard deviation, 95% within two, and 99% within 3.

• Percentiles - Indicated distance of score on a standard devation from 0. 50% percentile has z-score of 0. 98th percentile would have +2.

Correlations

• Correlation - Measures the relationship between two variables

• Correlation Coefficient - -1 is perfect negative correlation and +1 is perfect positive correlation. 0 means no correlation.

• Scatterplot - Used to graph correlations. Closer to points come to being on straight line, stronger the correlation.

Inferential Statistics

Determines if findings can be applied to a larger group. If sample doesn’t represent larger population, doesn’t work for larger group.

• P-value - All tests yield a p-value. Smaller the p-value, more signifcant the results of the experiment. 0.05 is the cutoff for statistically significant results.

• Effect Size - Practical significance, how large an effect is. High effect sizes with low p-values are the most useful findings.

• Replication Crisis - If we can replicate a sutyd and repeat the findings, then it strengthens the results, big replication crisis right now where findings are changing and this weakens findings of the original eperiments.

• Meta-Analysis - Type of research taht combines results of many studies to approximate an average effect.

• Peer Review - Other scientists review the work of a study to ensure high quality publications.

APA Ethical Guidelines

• Animal Research - Must have a clear, scientific purpose, limit harm to animals as much as possible and must be best suited to answer a specific question. They must also be acquired legally.

• Human research - must have nocoercion (willing consensual subject), informed consent (participants know about research, if there is deception, can’t be extreme). minors have informed assent), confidentialty for anyone in the experiment, risk and protection from harm for those involved, and debriefing post experiment for participants.

Unit 1

Biological Bases Of Behavior

• Genetic Predisposition - Increased chance of developing a specific trait or condition due to our genetic code.

Every human has 46 chromosomes, 23 pairs. Different segments of DNA, known as genes, code for certain traits. Psychologists study how genes make tendencies in our physical and behavioral traits.

• Twins (Identical twins - monozygotic twins) researchers love them for experiments, twins are very similar even when raised apart. (Helps with nature vs. nurture.)

• Chromosomal Abnormalities - Turner’s syndrom causes short stature, webbed necks, differences in physical sexual development. Only have single x chromosome. Klinefelters has extra x which gives them minimal sex development and personality traits like extreme extroversion.

• Neurons - Individual nerve cells that make up the entire nervous system

• Dendrites - Rootlike parts of neuron that stretch out from cell body, grow to make synaptic connections with other neurons.

• Cell Body (Soma) - Contains nucleus and other parts of the cell needed to sustain its life.

• Axon - Wirelike structure ending in the terminal buttons that extends from the cell body.

• Myelin Sheath - Fatty covering around axon of some neurons, speeds up impulses. Multiple Sclerosis occurs when this deteriorates (it interferes with neural transmission when it does)

• Terminal Buttons (End Buttons, Terminal branches of axons, synaptic knobs) - Branched end of the axon that contains neurotransmitters.

• Synapse - Space between the terminal buttons of one neuron and the dendrites of another.

  

• Neural Transmission - When a neuron transmits a message

• Resting Potential - When neuron is waiting to fire, neuron has overall slightly negative charge because negative ions are within the cell. Outside the cell are positive ions, and cell membrane is selectively permeable.

How a neuron fires (AKA does an Action Potential) Terminal buttons are first stimulated, release neurotransmitters into synapse. These transmitters fit in receptor cells in dendrites of a different neuron.

• Threshold - If enough neurotransmitters are received to stiumlate an action potential. Must be all or nothing, also known as the all or none principle.

If hits threshold, membrane becomes permeable and positive ions rush in. Then charge spreads down neuron to terminal buttons, then the process repeats.

• Depolarization - Process of neural firing is also called depolarization, since positive rushes in and negative charges become “depolarized”.

Important Note: Neural firing is an electrochemical process.

• Excitatory Neurotransmitters - They will exctie the next cell into firing.

• Inhibitory Neurotransmitters - They prevent the next cell from firing.

Types of Neurotransmitters and Function/Problems Associated

• Dopamine - Controls movement and alertness. Lack of dopamine is associated with Parkinsosn’s disease; overabundance associated with schizophrenia.

• Serotonin - Mood control. Lack of Serotonin is associated with clinical depression.

• Norepinephrine - Controls alertness and arousal. Lack is associated with depression.

• Glutamate - Excitatory neurotransmitter involved in memory. Problems with excess or abundance trigger migraines and seizures.

• GABA - Important inhibitory neurotransmitter. Problems with having seizures and sleep problems.

• Endorphins - Pain control. Too much or little associated with addictions.

• Substance P - Associated with pain perception. Lack may be associated with lack of pain perception.

• Acetycholine. Controls motor movement. Lack is associated with alzheimer’s disease. Also involved in Myasthenia Gravis, which causes muscle weakness.

• Myasthenia Gravis - Disease that causes with muscle weakness.

• Sensory Neurons (Afferent Neurons) - Take information from the senses to the brain.

• Interneurons (Association Neurons) - Take messages once they reach the brain and spinal cord and send them elsewhere in the brain or on to efferent neurons.

• Motor Neurons (Efferent Neurons) - Take information from the brain to the rest of the body.

Nervous System Organization

• Central Nervous System - Consists of brain and spinal cord. Transmits information from the rest of the body to the brain.

• Peripheral Nervous System - Everything else, contains Efferent (Motor) nervous system and Afferent (Sensory) nervous system. Has two subdivisions, Afferent and Efferent nervous systems.

• Somatic Nervous System - Subdivision of motor nervous system. Controls voluntary muscle movements. Motor cortex sends impulses to somatic nervous system, which controls the muscles that allow us to move.

• Autonomic Nervous System - Subdivision of motor nervous system. Controls automatic functions of our body like heart and lungs. Has two subdivisions, sympathetic and parasympathetic, which are fight and flight responses.

• Sympathetic Nervous System - Subdivision of autonomic nervous system. Mobilizes our body response to stress. Sends messages to organs, glands and muscles that direct our body’s response to stress. Accelerates heart rate and blood pressure, and conserves resources by slowing down digestion.

• Parasympathetic Nervous System - Subdivision of autonomic nervous system. Carries messages to the stress response center and slows down body to retun it to homeostasis.

• Reflex Arcs - Certain reactions occur the moment the impulse reaches the spinal cord.

• Endocrine System - System of glands that secretes hormones that affect many different biological processes in our bodies. Controlled by hypothalamus.

• Hormones - Chemical messengers produced by the endocrine system in the body.

• Adrenaline - Activated during the fight or flight response in stressful situations. It speeds up bodily processes.

• Leptin - Involved in weight regulaton. Suppresses hunger (Food may be perceived as less appetizing)

• Ghrelin - Motivates eating/increases hunger (Food may be perceived as more appetizing.)

• Melatonin - Triggers sleep and wakefulness responses in the brain.

• Oxytocin - Promotes good feelings such as trust and bonding.

• Adrenal Glands - Produce adrenaline (also known as norepinephrine) to prepare body for fight or flight.

• Ovaries and Testes - Produce sex hormones estrogen and testosterone. Can explain gender differences in responses for situations.

Ways to Study the Brain

• Accidents - Way to study brain (Ex. Phineas Gage, damaged front part of his brain, changed his behavior and personality).

• Lesioning - Removal or destruction of part of the brain. (Ex. Front lobotomy treatments for patients with mental illnesses).

• Electroencephalogram (EEG) - Detects brain waves. Researchers can examine what type of waves the brain produces during different stages of consciousness and can generalize about functions. (Ex. Sleep monitoring)

• Computerized Axial Tomography (CAT or CT) - Sophisticated x-ray that uses several x-ray cameras that rotate around the brain and create a 3 dimensional image. Only shows structure of brain, not functions or activity. (Ex. Can use to look for a tumor in the brain)

• Magnetic Resonance Image (MRI) - Similar to a CAT scan, uses magnetic fields to measure density and location of brain material. Does not use x-rays so patient is not exposed to radiation. Gives information on structure of brain, not function.

• Position Emission Tomography (PET) - Allows researcehrs to see what areas of the brain are most active during certain tasks. Measures how much glucose a part of the brain is using. High levels red, low levels green. Different types are used for different chemicals.

• Functional MRI (fMRI) - Combines elements of MRI and PET scans fMRI gives details of brain structure with information about blood flow. It ties brain activity to brain structure during cognitive tasks.

Brain Structure and Function

• Hindbrain - Structures located on the top of the spinal cord. Controls basic biological functions, includes Medulla, pons and cerebellum.

• Medulla (Medulla Oblongata) - Involved in control of our blood pressure, heart rate and breathing and located just above the spinal cord.

• Pons - Located just above medulla toward front, connects hindbrain with midbrain and forebrain. Also involved in control of facial expressions.

• Cerebellum (Little Brain) - (Located on the bottom rear of the brain) looks like smaller version of brain on underside of brain. Controls habitutal muscle movements that are ingrained actions like walking or how we move our fingers when playing the sax.

• Midbrain - Located just above structures in hindbrain but below areas categorized as forebrain. Midbrain tends to coordinate simple movements with sensory information. Contains reticular formation.

• Reticular formation - Collection of cells throughout the midbrain that controls general body arousal and ability to focus attention. If it doesn’t function, we fall into a coma.

• Forebrain - What makes humans human, controls thought and reason. Includes thalamus, hypothalamus, amygdala, and hippocampus, which are the limbic system.

• Thalamus - Located at top of brainstem, receives sensory signals coming up the spinal cord and sends them to areas in the rest of the forebrain. “Sensory Switchboard”

• Hypothalamus - Small structure surrounding the thalamus. Controls metabolic functions like body temperature, libido, hunger, thirst and endocrine system. Also biological rhythms. Lateral Hypothalamus is hunger center while ventromedial is (satiety center). If normal, they both oppose each other.

• Amygdala and Hippocampus - Armlike structures called hippocampus. Structures near end are called amygdala. Amygdala controls experiences of emotion, and hippocampus processes memories from short term into long term.

• Cerebral Cortex - Gray wrinkled surface of brain made up of neurons. When we grow the neurons develope and wrinkle and connect, known as pruning to increase the surface area of the brain.

• Contralateral Hemisperic Organization - IDea that each side of the brain controls an opposite side of the body.

• Hemispheric Specialization (Brain lateralization) - Specialization of functions in each hemisphere.

• Split Brain Patients - Patients who have had their corpus callosum split to treat epilepsy. Cannot orally report information presented only to the right hemisphere, since spoken language is in left. Corpus callosum splitting was invented by Roger Sperry and Michael Gazzaniga.

• Left Hemisphere - More active during logic and sequential tasks.

• Right Hemisphere - More active during spatial and creative tasks.

• Lobes - 8 different lobes on cerebral cortex, four on each hemisphere. Frontal parietal, temporal and occipital.

• Association Area - Any part of the cerebral cortex not associated with receiving sensory information of controlling muscle movements. Thought to be responsible for complex sophisticated thoughts, but specific thoughts are not known.

• Frontal Lobes - Large areas of the cerebral cortex located at the top front portion of the brain behind the eyes. Front is called prefrontal cortex which plays a critical role in thought process direction. Acts as “Brain’s central executive”. Predicts consquences and future, maintaining emotional control, and abstract thought. (Ex. Phineas Gage had his damaged) In left hemisphere frontal lobe contains Broca’s area.

• Broca’s Area - Responsible for controlling muscles involved in producting speech. Damage to this can result in a type of aphasia.

• Wernicke’s Area - Located in temporal lobe, involved in language processing with both written and spoken speech. Damage prevents comprehension of speech, however not grammar or syntax.

• Motor Cortex - Vertical stripe at back of frontal lobe that signals to muscles and controls voluntary movements. Top of body is controlled by bottom of this cortex, bottom of body is controlled by top.

• Parietal Lobes - Located behind frontal lobe but on top of the brain. Contains somatosensory cortex.

• Somatosensory Cortex (Sensory Cortex) - Vertical strip that receives incoming touch sensations. Top of body is controlled by bottom of this cortex, bottom of body is controlled by top. Example of someone affected by it would be phantom limb sensation.

• Phantom Limb Syndrome - If an individual loses a part of their body, but they still feel snesations form the lost limb because part of their sensory cortex is still mapped to that part.

• Occipital Lobes - Very back of brain furthest from eyes. Interprets messages from eyes in our visual cortex. Impulses from the right half of each retina are processed in the right hemisphere and vice versa.

• Temporal Lobes - Process sound sensed by the ears. Wernicke’s area is located here. If damaged prevents speech.

• Brain Plasticity - Different parts of the brain can adapt themselves to preform different functions if needed. This works better the younger someone is. as the dendrites and neurons that grow will take over that part.

• Priming - People respond more quickly or accurately to questions they have seen before, even if they don’t remember seeing them.

• Blind sight - Blind people can sometimes still describe the path of a moving object or accurately grasp objects they can’t see.

• Conscious Level - Information about yourself and evnrionemnt you are currently aware of. Like reading this.

• Nonconscious Level - Body processes controlled by your mind that we are not usually (or ever) aware of. Ex. Heartbeat, breathing, digestion.

• Preconscious Level - Information about yourself and environment you aren’t currently thinking about (not on conscious level) but could be brought into your conscious level.

• Subconscious Level - Information we aren’t consciously aware of but we know exists due to behavior. Examples like priming and blind sight.

• Unconscious - Pyschodynamic psychologists believe some events and feelings are unacceptable to our conscious mind and repressed into unconscious. Others objects because unconscious can’t be proven.

• Altered states of consciousness - Sleep, drugs, daydreaming. Considered altered since you aren´t at your full state of awareness.

• Psychoactive Drugs - Chemicals that change the chemistry of the brain + body and induce altered consciousnesses. Some effects are physical, but some are mental because they are expected (similar to placebo effect). Alter natural levels of neurotransmitters.

• Agonist - Drugs that mimic neurotransmitters

• Antagonists - Drugs that block neurotransmitters. Ex. Prozac

• Reuptake - Process of a neurotransmitter getting reabsorbed by its original neuron.

• Tolerance - A physical change producing a need for more drug to have the same effect. Eventually causes withdrawal, where people can experience symptoms like headaches (caffeine) to night sweats (heroin). Dependence can be psychological or physical or both. (Convinced they need it to be a certain way, physically is when they depend on it for health. They will have a tolerance and need it to prevent withdrawal symptoms)

• Stimulants - Caffeine, Cocaine, Amphetamines, Nictine. Wake you up and get you energized and give a sense of euphoria. They speed up body processes and produce tolerance, withdrawal effects and side effects (disturbed sleep, reduced appetite, increased anxiety, heart problems) Degree depends on power of drug.

• Depressants - Slow down body systems that stimulants speed up. Includes alcohol, barbituates, anxiolytics (tranqs/antianxiety drugs). Alcohol is most commonly used, Europhia can accompany depressing effects along with tolerance and withdrawal symptoms. Alcohol slows down reactions and judgement by slowing brain. It also inhibits brain regions involved in cerebellum which can affect motor control.

• Hallucinogens (Psychedelics) - Cause changes in perceptions of reality, like sensory hallucinations, lose to identity and fantasies. Includes LSD, peyote, psilocybin mushrooms, marijuana. They are persistent, can last in body for weeks (new doses added to lingering amount) this is sometimes called reverse tolerance. Have unpredictable effects.

• Opiates - Includes morphine, heroin, methdone, codeine, fentanyl similar to opium (derived from poppies). Opiates are agonists for endorphins and are painkillers/mood elevators. Some of most physically addicted since they rapidly change rapid and create tolerance/withdrawl. Fentanyl in particular is the most powerful.

• Circadian Rhythm - 24-hour day, metabolic and thought processes follow a certain pattern.

• N-REM 1/N-REM 2- Brain produces theta waves (high frequency, low amplitude) theta waves get slower and higher in amplitude as we go deeper. NREM 2 we experience sleep spindles (short bursts of rapid brain waves)

• N-REM 3/N-REM 4 (Delta sleep/Deep/Slow-Wave sleep) - Waves are very slow frequency and the slower they are, the less aware we are. Replenishes chemical supplies, releases growth hormone and builds immune system. If you don’t get it, susceptible to illness and physically tired. More exercise increases this time.

• Restoration of resources - Sleep is necessay because our body rebuilds resources used when we were awake and active.

• REM (Rapid eye movement) or Paradoxical sleep - Period of intense brain activity where eyes move/body may twitch. Brain waves are as active as if they are awake. Dreams are more likely to appear. Deprivation of this stage interferes with memory.

• REM rebound - People deprived of REM will have more and longer periods of REM the next time they sleep normally.

• Insomnia - Most common sleep disorder, touble sleeping or staying asleep.

• Narcolepsy - Rarer than insomnia, people have trouble staying awake and may fall asleep wherever.

• Sleep apnea - Almost as common as insomnia. Causes person to stop breathing and they will wake up slightly, gasp for are then continue sleeping. Prevents deep sleep and interferes with memory and attention.

• Somnambulism - Sleepwalking, occurs during stage 4 along with possible night terrors.

• Activation-synthesis theory - Dream thoery that looks at dreams as a biological phenomenon. Dreams are considered the brain’s interpretation of what is happening physiologically during REM. This theory says deams have no more meaning than any other physiological reflex in our body.

• Information Processing Theory - States we use dreams to process the events of the day. Stress will increase number and intensity of dreams, and content can be related to concerns. Idea brain is dealing with stress and infromation and to integrate information into our memories. Related to consolidation theory.

• Consolidation Theory - One of the functions of dreams is to help us encode things from our short term to our long term memory.

• Transduction - Signals from senses are transformed into neural impulses.

• Sensory Adaptation - Decreasing responsiveness due to constant stimuli. Ex. Socks on feet.

• Cocktail Party Effect - Talking with someone else but then someone may say your name, so your attention shifts.

• Synesthesia - Where one person’s sense being activated activates another sense. Like colors making them hear sounds.

• Prosopagnosia - Face blindness

• Sensation - The activation of our sense

• Perception - The proecss of understanding sensations

• Wavelength - Longer than visible light wavelengths are infrared waves, microwaves and radio waves. Shorter than visible light waves include ultraviolet and x ray waves. Objects appear the color they do based on wavelength.

• Visibile Light Spectrum - Roy. G. Biv

• Amplitude - Height of wave, dictates intensity of color. Higher the amplitude, the more color it contains and the brighter the color we perceive. For sound, determines loudness of pitch.

• Retina - Screen on the back of your eye

• Accomodation - Where the light that enters the pupil is focused by the lens.

• Nearsighted/Farsighted - When the lens of the eye can’t adapt enough to focus light properly.

• Photoreceptors - First layer of cells in retina that are activated by light

• Cons - Cells that are activated by color

• Rods - Cells that respond to black and white. Outnumber cones.

• Fovea - Spot located in center of the retina that contains highest concentration of cones. If you focus on something, this is where it hits.

• Bipolar Cells - Next layer of cells after photoreceptors.

• Ganglion Cells - Layer of cells after bipolar cells with aonx thaat make up the optic nerve that send impulses to thalamus spot known as lateral geniculate nucleus. (LGN). Then sent to occipital lobe.

• Blind spot - Area of retina with no rods or cones located in the place where the optic nerve leaves the retina.

• Feature detectors - Groups of neurons that respond to different types of visual images. Can detect motion, curves, lines, etc.

• Trichromatic Theory - Theory that we see color because we have three types of cones in the retina and each type can detect either blue, green or red. They activate in combinations to produce the color spectrum. Can’t explaim afterimages or color blindness.

• Afterimages - Like you stare at one color then see white.

• Dichromatism - People who cannot see red/green or blue/yellow shades.

• Monochromatism - People can only see shades of gray.

• Opponent Process Theory - States sensory receptors arranged in retina come in pairs of red/green yellow/blue black/white pairs. If one is stimulated the other is inhibited.

• Frequency - Length of a sound wave and determines pitch. (Pitch measured in megahertz)

• Ossicles - Three small bones (hammer (malleus), anvil (incus), stirrups (stapes)) sends vibration to oval window, which is attached to cochlea.

• Cochlea - Shaped like snail’s shell. filled with fluid. The floor of it is the basiliar membrane, which is lined with hair cells where transduction occurs. Impulses then go to auditory nerve.

• Sound localization - Reason why we have two ears, if sound was louder in one ear, we can determine where a sound came from.

• Place Theory - Sound theory that the hair cells in the cochlea respond to different frequencies of sound based on where they are located. This is why we can sense pitch.

• Frequency Theory - Thoery of sound that suggests we sense pitch becasue the hair cells fire at different frequencies in the cochlea.

• Conduction deafness - Occurs when something goes wrong with system of conducting sound to cochlea (in ear canal, eardrum, ossicles, or oval window)

• Nerve deafness (Sensorineural deafness) - Occurs when hair cells in cochlea are damaged, usually by loud noise. Ths can cause permanent hearing damage.

• Gate control theory - Helps explain how we experience pain the way we do. Suggests some pain messges have higher priority than others. If something is painful enough we feel it.

• Taste (Gustation) - Process of receiving stimuli from mouth receptors.

• Taste receptors - Located on papillae, the bumps on your tongue.

• Supertasters - People with bumps packed super tightly on their tongue.

• Nontaster - Someone with bumps spread further apart.

• Smell (Olfaction) - Molecules of smell rise up and are absorbed by receptors, then get sent to the olfactory bulb which sends info to brain. Does not use thalamus.

• Vestibular Sense - Tells where body is oriented in space

• Semicircular canals - Three canals in the ear that give the brain feedback about body orientation. Tubes partially filled with fluid. Movement triggers signals to brian.

• Kinethesis - Our kinesthetic sense that gives us feedback about position and orientation of body parts by using muscles in our body and send info to brain about limbs.

Unit 2

• Absolute Threshold - Smallest amount of stimulus we can detect 50% of the time.

• Difference (Just noticeable difference) threshold - Smallest amount of change needed in a stimulus before we detect a change.

• Signal Detection Theory - Investigates effects of distractions and interference we experience while perceiving the world that can interfere when we sense signals.

• Response Criteria - How motivated we are to detect certain stimuli and what we expect to perceive.

• Top Down Processing - We perceive by filling in the gaps of what we sense. We use background knowledge.

• Schemata (Schema) - Mental representations of how we expect the world to be.

• Perceptual Set - Predisposition to perceiving something in a certain way.

• Bottom Up Processing - Opposite of top down processing where we only use the features of an object to build a complete perception.

• Figure Ground Relationship - What part of a visual image is the figure, and what part is the ground or background.

• Gestalt Psychology - Points out we normally perceive images as groups, not isolated elements, using closure (we want to complete objects), proximity (we group objects close together), continuity (we group continuous lines or curves), similarity (we group similar objects)

• Size constancy - Objects closer to our eyes produce bigger images in our retina, but we take size in account and keep a constant size for an object.

• Shape constancy - Objects viewed from different angles produce different shapes but we know shape stays constant.

• Brightness Constancy - We perceive objects as a constant color although the light reflecting off the object changes.

• Stroboscopic effect - Images in a series are presented and appear to be moving (flip books)

• Phi phenomenon - Flashing lights in a billboard sequence appear to be moving.

• Autokinetic effect - If a light is projected on a wall steadily in a dark room, it will appear to move.

• Visual Cliff - Experiment where babies were encouraged to crawl across a seeemingly “cliff” type table. Old enough infants will not crawl, demonstrating depth perception.

• Monocular depth cues - Depth cues that do not depend on having two eyes like linear perspective, relative size cue, interposition cue, and texture gradient.

• Linear Perspective - Monocular cue where two lines that converge.

• Relative size cue - Monocular cue where you use size to demonstrate distance.

• Interposition cue - Monocular cue where objects that block the view of other objects must be closer

• Texture gradient - Monocular cue where we can see details in texture close to us but not far away, indicating distance.

• Binocular depth cues - Depth cues that depend on two eyes.

• Retinal Disparity (Binocular disparity) - Each of our eyes views objects from a slightly different agnle, brain receives both and knows if object is far away, disparity will be lesser.

• Convergence - As an object gets closer to our face, our eyes move toward each other to keep it in sight. The more the eyes converge, the closer the object will be.

• Culture with Visual Cues - Some cues are learned and not innate so people may not see things the same way depending on their culture. (Muller-Lyer illusion)

• Extrasensory Perception - People who claim to have more senses such as telekinesis. Does not hold up in studies and has been proven false by rigorious double blind studies.

• Prototypes - What we think is the most typical example of a concept.

• Algorithms - One way we solve problems that is a rule that guarentees the right solution by using a formula or foolproof method. Sometimes impractical.

• Heuristics - Rule of thumbs, a strategy to solve problems by making a quick but not necessarily accurate judgement. Includes availability and representativeness heuristics.

• Availability Heuristics - Judging a situation based on examples of similar situations that come to mind initially. Can lead to incorrect solutions because everyone has different experiences.

• Representativeness Heuristics - Judging a situation based on how similar aspects are to prototypes a person holds in thier mind. Ex. Young people are suicidal because of depressed adolescent prototype.

• Belief Bias - We make illogical conclusions to confirm our preexisting beliefs

• Belief perserverance - Tendency to maintain a belief after evidence from belief is contradicted.

• Gambler’s fallacy - Occurs when we believe a certain event/outcome is more or less likely to occue because of how often it has recently occured.

• Sunk-Cost fallacy - Sometimes we are unwilling to change a course of action simply because we have spent time/effort making something work, even when the action is unlikely to solve the problem.

• Mental Set (Rigidity) - Tendency for people to fall into established thought patterns. Ex. functional fixedness

• Functional Fixedness - Is the inability to see a new use for an object

• Framing - Idea that the same information can be presented in different ways and the presentation of information can change the way we view a problem or issue.

• Creativity - Use of imagination or original ideas

• Convergent Thinking - Thinking pointing towards one solution

• Divergent Thinking - Thinking that searches for multiple answers to a question

• Three-box/Information-processing model (Multi-store model) - Model that proposes information passes through three stages before it is stored (sensory, short-term, long-term)

• Sensory Memory - Holding tank for incoming sensory information, only holding it between 1-4 seconds, depending on the information.

• Iconic Memory - Visual information you see, it can only be held in your sensory memory for less than a second.

• Echoic Memory - Auditory information that can only be held in your sensory memory for 3-4 seconds.

• Short-term memory - Memory that lasts for a slightly longer period of time than sensory memory and can hold roughly +-7 memories.

• Selective Attention - Determines what memories get encoded. We encode what is important to us or what we are attending.

• Inattentional Blindness - When you fail to notice something in your visual field because you were not paying attention to it.

• Change Blindness- Sometimes we do not observe a change in our environment because we are paying attnetion to something else.

• Cocktail party effect - When you are listening to someone and hear your name called across the room.

• Working memory - If you are trying to do something with something in your short term memory. Like thinking of the numbers 2 and 3, working would be multiplying them. Has 3 systems of central executive, visuospatial sketchpad and auditory loop.

• Central Executive - System of working memory that monitors incoming information and determines what other systems should be involved in processing the information.

• Visuospatial Sketchpad - System of working memory that deals with visual infromation; this is the ‘mind’s eye’ that we use to visualize the world.

• Auditory Loop - system of working memory that deals with words or numbers.

• Maintenance rehearsal - When you repeat something to yourself until you type it in to help you remember it for as long as you need.

• Elaborative Rehearsal - Type of effortful processing where we focus on putting mental effort into encoding something.

• Effortful processing - Active encoding that requires conscious and effortful attention.

• Long-Term Memory - Permanent storage of memories with no known limit. 3 parts of long-term memory.

• Episodic Memory - Memories of specific events, stored in a sequential series of events.

• Semantic Memory - General knowledge of the world, stored as facts, meanings and categories, not sequentially.

• Procedural Memory - Memory of skills and how to preform them. They are sequential but complicated to describe in words.

• Explicit Memories (Declarative Memories) - Conscious memories of facts or events we actively tried to remember.

• Implicit Memories (Nondeclarative Memories) - Unintentional memories that we might not realize we have.

• Prospective Memory - Memory for things you plan to do in the future.

• Eidetic Memory - Photographic memory. Rare to have photographic memory, most people can just enhance their memory with mnemonic devices, context and visual imagery.

• Shallowly encoded - You will forget the fact or memory later

• Deeply encoded - If you have deeply researched and connected with something. you will likely remember it later.

• Long-term potentiation - Through repeat connections and repeated neuron firings, the connection between something allows it to last longer in your memory.

• Encoding - Process where we put information into our memories.

• Primacy Effect - Effect that predicts we are more likely to recall items presented at the beginning of a list.

• Recency Effect - Effect that predicts we will recall items at the end of a list.

• Serial Position effect (Serial position curve) - Recall of items in a list is affected by the order of items in a list.

• Method of Loci - Way to remember things by using imagery to assocaite them with something.

• Spacing Effect - Spacing out practice and review of materials helps you remember them better.

• Massed practice - Practicing and reviewing for something all at once.

• Chunking - Grouping items you need to remember into chunks. Do not group items into more than 7 groups. Mnemonic devices are typically chunking.

• Mnemonic Devices - Memory aides like acronyms.

• Anterograde Amnesia - When you cannot code new memories but can remember events already in memory.

• Retrograde Amnesia - When you are unable to remember information from before a brain trauama.

• Retrieval - Processing of getting information out of memory so we can use it.

• Recognition - Process of retreival where you match something current with something already in your memory.

• Recall - Retrieving a memory with an external cue.

• Retrieval cues - Stimuli to help people retrieve memories.

• Tip of tongue phenomenon - Temporary inability to remember information.

• Semantic Network Theory - theory that our brain might form new memories by connection their meaning and context with meanings already in memory.

• Context Dependent Memory - Importantce of memories caused people to encode the context surrounding something.

• Flashbulb memories - Powerful vivid memories than can cause context dependent memory.

• Mood-congruent memory - The greater likelihood of recalling an event when your current mood matches your mood during the event.

• State-Dependent Memory - Phenomonon of recalling events encoded while in particular states of consciousness. If you are on alcohol, you won’t remember the thing until you are on alcohol again.

• Constructed Memory - Includes false details of a real event or recollection of an event that never occured.

• Misinformation event - Leading questions can cause us to recall false details and questioners can create an entirely new memory.

• Decay - Type of forgetting where we don’t use a memory or skill enough. They can reappear quicker if you memorize them again.

• Interference - Another cause of interfering where something else in your memory competes with what you recall. Two types.

• Retroactive Interference - Learning new information interferes with old information

• Proactive Information -Older information learned interferes with the recall of new information.

• Francis Galton - Pioneer of studying human intelligence and testing with surveys and statistics.

• Standardized - Test items have been piloted on a similar population people as those who are meant to take the test (standardization sample) and normal levels have been established.

• Reliability - Repeatability or consistency of the test as a means of measurement.

• Split-Half reliability - Randomly dividing a test into two different sections and correlating performance of people on both halves. The closer the correlation coeff. is to +1, greater the reliability.

• Test-retest reliability - Correlation between a person’s score on one administration and another time taking the test.

• Validity - Accuracy of a test. Intelligence tests are truly valid if they measure intelligence

• Content Validity - How well a measure reflects the entire range of material it is supposed to test.

• Face Validity - Superficial measure of accuracy. High face validity if you are using a cake baking test to find a baker, low if you use it to find a docter.

• Concurrent Validity - Measures how much of a characteristic a person has now

• Predictive Validity - Measure of future performance

• Construct Validity - Most meaningful type of validity where an independent measure has already been established and they can correlate performance on this measure with performance on a new measure. Higher the correlation, the more construct validity it has.

  

• Aptitude Tests - Tests that measure ability or potential

• Achievement Tests - Measure what one has learned or accomplished

• Speed tests - Large amount of questions asked in a short amount of time

• Power tests - Gauge the level of difficulty of problems a person can solve

• Group Tests - Tests administered to many people at a time

• Individual tests - Involve greater interaction between instructor and participant.

• Intelligence - Ability to gather and use information in productive ways.

• Fluid Intelligence - Ability to solve abstract problems and pick up new information and skills. Decreases as people age.

• Crystallized Intelligence - Using knowledge aquired over time. Holds steady over time or increases.

• Factor Analysis - Technique used by Charles Spearmen (Who thinks one factor of intelligence) is statistical tehcnique that measures correlations between different items.

• Gardner’s Theory of Multiple Intelligences - Howard Gardner’s multiple types of intelligence (9), they include linguistic, logical-mathematical, spatial, musical, bodily-kinesthetic, intrapersonal and naturalistic.

• Sternberg’s Triarchic Theory - 3 types of intelligence exist, componential (analytic), experimental (creative), and contextual (practical).

• Componential (Analytical) Intelligence (Triarchic Theory) - Typical what you think of when measuring intelligence such as comparing, contrasting, analyzing and explaining.

• Experimental (Creative) Intelligence (Triarchic Theory) - Focuses on people’s ability to use their knowledge and experiences.

• Contextual (Practical) Intelligence (Triarchic Theory) - Stree smarts

• Intrapersonal Intelligence - Ability to understand onesself and thoughts, feelings and motivations.

• Interpersonal Intelligence Ability to understand other people’s thoughts, feelings and motivations.

• Emotional Intelligence (EQ) - Proponent Daniel Goleman, corresponds to inter and intra personal intelligence. Need EQ and IQ to be smart.

• Mental Age - Idea that intelligence increases as one gets older.

• Alfred Binet - Created a way to test mental age to see what students needed help. Administered questions to standardized sample and created a test to gauge children.

• Stanford-Binet IQ Test - Created by Lewis Terman to measure IQ, which is measured by dividing persons mental age by chronological age and multiplying by 100. All adults automatically have mental age of 20.

• Wechsler Tests - Tests created by David Wechsler to measure intelligence. 3 types, Wechsler Adult, Wechsler Children, and Wechsler Primary and Preschool. Yield IQs based on diviation IQ. Mean is 100, standard deviation is 15. Score determined by how many standard deviations people are from the mean. Has subscales, and performance and verbal tests. Preformance on these two types can help identify learning disabilities.

• Heritability - Measure of how much of a trait’s variation is explained by genetic factors.

• Flynn Effect - Performance on intelligence has been steadily increasing throughout the century, suggesting environment plays a role.

• Monozygotic (Identical) Twins - Score similarly on intelligence tests compared to fraternal twins.

Unit 3

• Developmental Psychology - Studies how our behaviors and thoughts change over the course of our entire lives.

• Cross-Sectional Studies - Studies that use participants of different ages to compare how certain variables may change over a lifespan. Short and quick.

• Longitudinal Studies - Take place over a long period of time and exames one group of participants. Precisely measure the group, but are long and may not always apply to the larger population.

• Teratogens - Chemicals or agents that can cause problems to a baby if ingested during pregnancy. Ex. Alcohol (Can give babies FAS, which causes deformed skulls + intellect problems)

• Reflexes - Specific, inborn automatic responses to certain stimuli.

• Rooting Reflex - When touched on the cheek, a baby will turn their head to that side and try to put the object in thier mouth. (Helps with feeding)

• Sucking Reflex - when an object is in the babies mouth they will suck on it. (Helps with feeding)

• Grasping Reflex - If an object is placed in a baby’s palm or foot pad, they will try to grasp the object with fingers/toes.

• Moro Reflex - When startled, a baby will fling their limbs out and quickly retract them, making themself as small as possible.

• Babinski Reflex - When a baby’s foot is stroked, they will spread their toes.

• Newborn Baby Senses - Hearing is dominant, young ones are basically legally blind, but vision will become dominant as they age.

• Motor skills - Ability to preform coordinated movements.

• Gross motor skills - Movements controlled by large muscle groups that move the whole body.

• Female v. Male Brains - Women have larger corpus callosum, and effects how left and right communicate and coordinate tasks.

• Discontinuous - Development that happens in fits and starts with periods of rapid or slow growth. Stage theories are all discontinuous theories of development.

• Zone of proximal development - Psychologist Lev Vygostky’s concept that answers discontinuous vs. continuous growth. A child’s zone of proximial development is the range of tasks they can preform with assistance and those they can do independently.

• Psychosocial Stage Theory - 8 stage theory created by Erik Erikson who thought our personality was influenced by experiences with others.

• Trust vs. Mistrust (Psychosocial Stage Theory) - Baby’s first social experience of the world centers on need fulfillment. They learn if they can trust the world provides for their needs, and if their requests (crying) work. This sense will carry throughout our lives.

• Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt (Psychosocial Stage Theory) - Toddlers begin to exert their will over their bodies for the first time, potty training was early effort at gaining this control. Toddlers should learn to control temper tantrums during this stage. “No!” is a popular word, saying they attempt to control. If we learn control in reasonable ways we develop a will and can control out body and emotional reaction during the rest of our social challenges.

• Initiative vs. Guilt (Psychosocial Stage Theory) - Children’s favorite word is “Why?”. If we trust and feel in control we want to learn about our surroundings. We problem solve and ask questions. If this is encouraged, we will feel comfortable with our curiosity for the rest of the stages. If scolded, we might feel guilty and stop asking questions in the future.

• Industry vs. Inferiority - Beginning of formal education. Kindergarten mostly is about entertainment, and in first grade we have to present evaluated work. We expect to preform as well as our peers. If we feel we are as good as the person next to us, we feel competent. If we are behind, (an inferiority complex), we will feel anxious about our performance in that area for the remaining stages.

• Identity vs. Role Confusion - In adolesence, Erikson felt our social task is to discover our social identity. People may try different groups of roles until they find the best one to fit their internal self. Adolescent should find self before next stage otherwise identity crisis. Researchers connect this stage to tendency of adolescents to think they are viewed by an imaginary audience and overestimate how much people pay attention to them.

• Imaginary Audience - Tendency for adolescents to believe others are judging their appearance, behavior and experiences.

• Intimacy vs. Isolation - Young adults that have stable identities must then balance their ties and efforts between work (careers, school, self-improvement) and relationships. How much time should we spend with our relationships? Difference between platonic and romantic? Patterns at this age influence the future.

• Generativity vs. Stagnation - Erikson felt that as we reach this stage, we look at our life path. We want to make sure we create the right type of life. We may try to seize control and ensure things are going right. If not we might change our identities or control those around us.

• Integrity vs. Despair - We look back at our accomplishments and decide if we are satisfied. If we can see our lives were meaningful, we step outside pressures and stress of society and offer wisdom. If we feel regret, we fall into despair over lost opportunities.

• Jean Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development - Believed children view the world through schemata, congitive rules used to interpret the world. We put our experiences into these schemata using assimilation. Theory describes how thinking moves through four stages. Criticisms say he underestimated how fast children move through stage.

• Sensorimotor Stage (0-2 years) Jean Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development - Babies experience the world strictly through senses, behavior is governed by our reflexes. Challenge of this stage is to develop object permanence.

• Object Permanence - Understanding objects continue to exist even when they are out of sensory range.

• Preoperational Stage (2-7 years) Jean Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development - Object permanence prepares child to use mental symbols to represent actual objects. We learn to represent the world and speak. Kids are also egocentric, develop ability to imagine what people are thinking, pretend play and theory of the mind.

• Mental Symbols - Mental representations that represent ideas, objects and experiences.

• Theory of Mind - Ability to think about and consider the mental states of others.

• Concrete Operational Stage (8-12 years) Jean Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development - Children learn to think logically about relationships among characteristics of objects. They are in this stage when they have knowledge of concepts of conservation, the realization that properties of objects remain the same when their shapes change. Includes volume, area, and number.

• Concepts of conservation - Realization that properties of objects remain the same when their shapes change. If they have this realization, it can be tested using volume, area and numbers, where things stay the shape even if they are rearranged.

• Formal Operational Stage (12-?) Jean Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development - Describes adult reasoning, not all of us reach it. Formal operaational reasoning is abstract reasoning, the idea we manipulate objects and contrast in our mind without the real world. People in this stage can preform hypothetical thinking. Can also use metacognition. Can trace thought processes and evaluate effectiveness of how we solve problems. This abstract thinking can lead adolescents into type of egocentric thinking with personal fable.

• Personal Fable - Adolescent belief they are unique or different from everyone else, or they can develop superiority or invulnerability.

• Metacognition - Ability to think about how we think.

• Phonemes - Smallest units of sound used in a language.

• Morphemes - Smallest units of meaningful sound, can be words, prefixes, etc.

• Syntax - The way language is spoken or written in a particular order.

• Semantics - Meanings of words, combinationsn of words and phrases and sentences.

• Babbling - Stage of language learning that represents experimentation with phonemes. Babies in this stage can produce sounds from any language in the world, then as they develop, they only keep their primary languages since that is what they hear.

• Holophrastic Stage (One-Word Stage) - Stage where babies begin to mimic words they hear people speak, usually around year 1.

• Telegraphic Speech (Two word stage) - Toddlers combined words in to simple commands. Meaning is there, but syntax is absent. They also begin to learn to use grammar and may use it incorrectly, this is called overgeneralization or overregularization.

• Critical Period - Window of opportunity where we must learn a skill or else our development will suffer, idea by Chomsky. Ex. Language learning.

• Linguistic Relativitiy Hypothesis - Theory that language we use might control or limit our thinking.

• Attachment Parenting - Reciprocal relationship between a caregiver and kid affects development. Two areas of this study include contact comfort and secure attachment.

• Contact Comfort - Physical comfort is important for attachment to parents and deprivation can cause effects on behavior. Ex. Monkeys.

• Temperament - Mood and emotional style or typical way we react to stressful situations.

• Secure Attachments - Infants have positive, strong emotional bond in relationships, may become distressed without parent figures. Idea tested by Mary Ainsworth.

• Avoidant Attachments - Infants with discomfort for intimacy, desire for independence and difficultly trusting. They would resist parent figures and not go to them for comfort. Idea tested by Mary Ainsworth.

• Anxious/Ambivalent Attachments (Resistant Attachments) - Had ambivalent reastions to parents, may have shown extreme stress when parents left but resisted comfort when they returned.

• Ecological Systems Theory - Views human development as a system of relationships that is impacted by our environment. 5 interrelated systems that influence development.

• Microsystem Direct interactions betwen child and their immediate surroundings, including caregivers.

• Mesosystem - Microsystems not isolated, acknowledges each of the 5 ecological systems interact. For example, communicating with child, parents and teachers, than communication between parents and teachers. Conversations influence and influence is acknowledged in system.

• Exosystem - System involves indirect influences on child’s development. If a parent sacrifices time to earn money, absence may impact child’s development and extra income may influence child through increased opportunities for them.

• Macrosystem - Influences of culturese child is immersed in like family that acknowledges any career can be for boys or girls.

• Chronosystem - Times of transition of change that occur over the chronology or timeline of a child’s life that influence development. Biological changes are an example.

• Authoritarian Parents - Set strict standards for child behavior and apply punishments for violations. Obedient attitudes are values and parents are the final jury.

• Permissive Parents - Don’t set clear guidelines for children, rules are constantly changed or not enforced. Family can perceive to get away with anything. If you came home late, they might react, may not mind, or threaten you and not follow through.

• Authoritative Parents - Set consistent standards for children’s behavior but standards are reasonable and explained. Rationale is discussed and independence of kids is encouraged as far as the rules go. They praise and punish, and you know why the rule exists. This is the most desirable style of parenting.

• Behavior Changes - Changes in puberty, menopause cahgnes are not considered to be due to learning.

• Classical Conditioning (Associative Learning) - Pavlov’s idea that people can learn to associate neutral stimuli with stimlu that produce involuntary responses. Ex. Dog or Little Albert. Also known as Contiguity model becuase it postulates that more times two things are paired, the greater the learning that will take place.

• Unconditioned Stimulus (US or UCS) - Stimulus that elicits a natural, reflexive response. Like food, which causes salivation.

• Unconditioned Response (UR or UCR) - Response to unconditioned stimulus, such as salivating.

• Neutral Stimulus (NS) - Neutral stimulus that does not originally evoke a response. Can become conditioned stimulus.

• Conditioned Stimulus (CS) - Stimuli, like bell, that is originally neutral but once repeatedly paired with the US, it becomes conditioned to evoke the conditioned response.

• Conditioned Response (CR) - The response that is provoked by the conditioned stimulus, same as unconditioned response.

• Acquisition - Process of associating US with NS to get the CR. Occurs fastest is delayed conditioning is used, where NS is continually used while people receive US.

• Trace Conditioning - Presentation of CS, followed by short break, followed by presentation of US.

• Simultaneous Conditioning - Presentation of CS and US at the same time.

• Backward Conditioning - Presentation of US first, followed by CS presentation. Method is especially ineffective.

• Extinction - Has taken place when CS no longer initiates CR, achieved by repeatedly presenting the CS without the US.

• Spontaneous Recovery - Sometimes after a conditioned response has been extinguished and no more training has taken place, response can briefly reappear after presentation of CS.

• Generalization - Tendency to respond the same to similar stimuli in classical conditioning.

• Discrimination - Opposite of generalization where subjects can tell the difference between various stimuli in classical conditioning.

• Aversive Conditioning - Conditioning for something unpleasant. Ex. Little Albert.

• Higher Order Conditioning (Second Order) - Once a CS elicits a CR, the CS can briefly be used as a US to condition a resposne to a new stimulus. Ex, bell can turn a light flashing into a CS.

• Biology and Conditioning - Subjects make certain connections easier than others. Ex. Taste aversion, if you eat food and then get nauseous hours later, you might develop an aversion, rats are very sensitive to this. Can occur so quickly it is called One-trial learning.

• Biological Preparedness - We are biologically predisposed to associate nausea with somethign we ate or drank.

• Garcia Effect - Ease with which animals learn taste aversions.

• Operant Conditioning - Learning based on consequences like rewards and punishments, Thorndike researched this. Skinner also did.

• Law of Effect (Thorndike’s) - If the consequences of a behavior are pleasant, the stimulus response connection will be strengthened and if consequences are unpleasant, connection will weaken and behavior will decrease. Used term instrumental conditioning to describe his work.

• Reinforcement - Anything likely to make behavior reoccur, can be negative or positive

• Positive Reinforcement - Addition of something pleasant to make behavior reoccur

• Negative Reinforcement - The removal of something unpleasant to make behavior reoccur

• Escape Learning - Allows someone to terminate an aversive stimulus, Ex. Negative reinforcement.

• Punishment - Stopping behavior with unpleasant consequences. Can be positive or negative. Most effective if delivered immediately after unwanted behavior.

• Positive Punishment - Addition of something unpleasant to make a behavior less likely

• Negative Punishment (Omission Training) - Removal of something pleasant to make a behavior less likely

• Shaping - Reinforces steps to reach a desired behavior, like guiding a rat to a lever in a skinner box.

• Chaining - Where animals are taught several responses successively to get a reward, linking several separate behaviors.

• Primary Reinforcerers - Reinforcerers needed to survive like food, water and rest.

• Secondary Reinforcers - Things we learn to value such as praise.

• Generalized Reinforcer - Something that can be traded for virtually anything. Ex. Money or token economies.

• Continuous Reinforcement - Rewarding a behavior every time it is done to teach it.

• Partial Reinforcement Schedules - Schedules of rewarding only part of the time and can prevent extinction quicker, known as partial reinforcement effect.

• Fixed-Ratio Schedule - Schedule that provides reinforcement after a set number of responses Ex. Buy 10 get one free

• Variable Ratio Schedule - Reinforcement is delivered after a variable number of responses. Ex. Slot machines.

• Fixed Interval Schedule - Reinforcement is delivered after a behavior is preformed following the passage of a fixed amount of time. Ex. Weekly paycheck

• Variable Interval Schedule - Reinforcement is delivered after a behavior is preformed following the passage of a variable amount of time. Ex. checking the mail for mail

• Instinctive Drift - Tendency for animals to forgo rewards to pursue their typical patterns of behavior

• Contingency Model of Classical Conditioning - Rescorla’s model that says A is contingent on B, so if food only appears sometimes, the response will be lesser than if food appears all of the time.

• Modeling (Vicarious Learning) - Learning from watching. Ex. Children playing house after watching their house. Components of modeling include observation, then imitating. You must observe before imitating.

• Social Learning Theory - Albert Bandura’s theory we learn by watching others of the same species. Ex. Bobo Doll experiment.

• Latent Learning - Studied by Edward Tolman and is idea that there is learning that only becomes apparent when there is a need for it. Ex. Walking into a bookshop you have walked passed every day and knowing where stuff is.

• Insight Learning - Wolfgang Kohler’s study where you instantly learn how to solve a problem.

Unit 4

• Prosocial/Antisocial Behavior - Actions taken to benefit people and society as a whole. Antisocial is actions taken to violate societal norms or harm others.

• Social Influence Theory - Idea that how people feel and act is affected by other people around them.

• Attribution Theory - Area of study within the field of social cognition that tries to explain how people determine the cause of what they observe.

• Dispositional (Person) Attribution - Tendency to explain behavior and effects by attributing them to an individuals internal characteristics.

• Situation Attribution - Attributing something to a situational factor

• Stable/Unstable Attributions - If an attribution is stable, that means it happens a lot or always happens. It if is unstable, it means it only happened that one time.

• Consistency, Distinctiveness and Consensus - Kelley’s theory of how people make attributions. Consistency is how similarly the individual acts over time, distinctiveness is how similar the situation is to other situations the person has been in and consensus asks us to consider how others in the same situation responsed.

• Self-Fulfilling Prophecy - The expectations we have of others can influence the way the others behave.

• Situational Variables - The situation can influence the behavior of people. The tendency to overestimate dispositional factors and underestimate situational variables is known as fundamental attribution error. Fundamental attribution error is less likely to occur in collectivist cultures where person’s link to family or groups is stressed as oppose to individualist cultures where person is more individual and it is stressed they are unqiue.

• Actor-Observer Bias - Tendency to explain one’s behavior by attributing it to the situational factors, while attributing others behavior to personal disposition or personality traits.

• False-Consensus Effect - Tendency for people to overestimate the number of people who agree with them.

• Self-Serving Bias - Tendency to take more credit for good outcomes than for bad ones.

• Just-World Phenomenon (Just world bias) - People have a bias towards thinking bad things happen to bad people, can be seen in people blaming victims.

• Attitude - Set of beliefs and feelings

• Mere Exposure Effect - States the more someone is exposed to something, the more one will come to like it.

• Cognitive Dissonance Theory - Based on the idea that people are motivated to have consistent attitudes and behaviors, when they don’t they experience mental tension or dissonance.

• Foot-In-The-Door Technique - Suggests if you can get people to agree to a small request, then they will be more likely to agree to a larger follow up request.

• Door In the Face Technique - Suggests after people refuse a large request, they will look more favorably on a smaller request, that in comparison, is more reasonable.

• Social Reciprocity Norm (Norms of Reciprocity) - People think when someone does something nice for them, they should do something nice in return.

• Social Norms - Things done normally in society, can get people to drink more water, recycle, etc.

• Social Responsibility Norm - Belief we all should do what we can to make the world and society a better place.

• Social Traps - Situations that tend to undermine the efforts of social responsibility norms. Ex. To better society requires a sacrifice that one individual making does not cause much of a difference.

• Stereotypes - Expectations about members of a group. Basically schemata of a group.

• Implicit Attitude - Something that may influence a persons behavior without them being aware of it.

• Ethnocentrism - Belief one’s culture is better than the rest. Opposite is multiculturalism, belief different groups all contribute to society.

• Individualistic Cultures - Cultures that embrace individualism. Ex. United States.

• Collectivist Cultures - Cultures that embrace groups. Ex. Japan.

• Prejudice and discriminiation - Prejudice is a negative attitude, while discrimination is a negative action.

• Out-Group Homogeneity Bias - Idea your group, in group, is more diverse than members of other groups, out groups.

• In Group Bias - Preference for your group over other groups

• Superordinate Goal - Goal that benefits all and necessitates the participation of all. Ex. Contact theory, where tow grous can reduce animosity if they work together.

• Instrumental Aggression - Aggression where the act is intended to secure a particular end goal.

• Hostile Aggression - Aggression that has no clear purpose. Ex. Aggression triggered by emotions.

• Bystander Effect - The more people involved with something, the less likely any of them are to do anything. This is because responsibility has diffused. Pluralistic Ignorance is when they look to others for solutions.

• Self-Disclosure - People can build relationships, specifically love, if they share pieces of themselves with each other.

• Social Facilitation - The phenomenon where the presence of others improves task preformance.

• Upward Social Comparison - When we compare ourselves to people doing better than we are

• Downward Social Comparison - When we compare ourselves to people doing worse than we are.

• Relative Deprivation Theory - Explains people tend to feel less satisfied when they do more upward social comparison.

• Conformity - Tendency for people to go along with the actions and behaviors of others.

• Normative Social Influence - People conform for social reasons, to belong to a group.

• Informational Social Influence - People conform because they think the group knows best.

• Obedience Studies - Studies that focus on participant willingness when another asks them what to do. Ex. The experiment where participants had to shock someone (fake) and they went along with it. This experiment would not fly today and is severly unethical.

• Deindividuation - People lose their identity in a group for example, if they were assigned roles of prisoners or guards, they would act their roles and be hostile or negative.

• Social Loafing - Individuals do not put in as much effort when acting part of a group as they do when acting alone.

• Group Polarization - Tendency of a group to make more extreme decisions than group members would make individually.

• Groupthink - Tendency for gorups to make bad decisions. Occurs when group members suppress their reservations about ideas supported by the group. False unanimity emerges.

• Psychdynamic Theory of Personality - Believes people’s behavior is controlled by unconscious procesases. Consists of three parts; Id, Ego, and Superego.

• Id - Follows pleasure principle (instincts) and exists from birth.

• Ego - Follows reality principle and emerges around 2/3 years. Negotiates between Id and Superego. Protects conscious mind with defense mechanisms.

• Superego - Acts as your conscious and develops around age 5.

• Defense Mechanisms - Tactics used by ego to help protect the conscious mind. Can include repression, denial, displacement, projection, reaction formation, regression, rationalization, intellectualization, sublimation.

• Repression - Blocking out thoughts from conscious awareness.

• Denial - Refuses to accept facts to protect onesself.

• Displacement - Redirecting one’s feelings toward another person or object. Negative displacement usually is placed on someone weaker than sourrce of emotion.

• Projection - Believing the feelings one has toward someone else are held by the other person towards them.

• Reaction Formation - Expressing the opposite of how one truly feels.

• Rationalization - coming up with a beneficial result of an undesirable occurence

• Intellectualization - Undertaking an acadmic, unemotional study of a topic

• Sublimation - Channeling frustration toward a different goal. Sublimation is viewed as a healthy defense mechanism.

• Carl Jung theory - Two parts of the unconscious, the personal unconscious and collective unconscious. Collective unconscious is passed down through species to explain cultural similarities, while personal unconscious is painful of threatening memories someone does not want to confront.

• Alfred Adler - Believed more on conscious role of ego, where people desire to acheive superiority. Also known for his work in birth order shaping personality.

• Projective Tests - tests used by psychodynamic theorists to delve into the unconscious. Can be interpreting ambiguous stimuli, like the Rorschach inkblot test. Thematic appereption test (TAT) has ambiguous cards. These tests can be unreliable because it relies on psychologist interpretations.

• Self-Concept - A person’s global feeling about themself.

• Self-Esteem - Overall sense of personal value or self worth.

• Self-Actualization - Humanistic approach Carl Rogers, believes people are motivated to reach their full potential.

• Unconditional Positive Regard - Blanket acceptance of people no matter what.

• Big Five - Personality traits created by Paul Costa and Robert Mccrae that proposed personality can be described by these traits. Extroveersion, agreeableness, conscientiousness, openness to experience, emotional stability (neuroticism).

• Conscientiousness - Hardworking, responsible, organized people.

• Emotional Stability - How consistent someone’s mood is.

• Factor Analysis - Statistical Technique that allows researchers to use correlations among traits to see which traits cluster together as factors.

• Idiographic Theorists - Trait theorists that believe using the same set of terms to classify all people is impossible and suggest people should be seem in terms what few traits best characterize them.

• Reciprocal Determinism (Triadic Reciprocity) - People’s personality is influences by 3 things; person (traits), environment and a person’s behavior.

• Self-Efficacy - Belief in one’s ability to succeed and accomplish specific tasks, influencing motivation, behavior and performance.

• Internal Locus of Control - People believe they are responsible for what happens to them.

• External Locus of control - People believe luck and outside forces are what affects them.

• Explanatory Style - Way of differentiating people that is the kinds of attributions they make about things that appen to them.

• Optimistic Explanatory Style - Leads people to make internal, global and stable attributions for good things that happen to them, and external specific and unstable contributions for bad things.

• Pessimistic Explanatory Style - People attribute negative events to internal, stable and global causes (not them, but will happen continuously) and positive things to unstable, random external causes.

• Personal Inventories - Questionnaires that ask people to provide information about themselves. Humanistic psychologists frequently use it. Ex. MMPI-2, Minnesota Personality test.

• Instincts - Automatic behaviors preformed in response to specific stimuli.

• Drive Reduction Theory - Theory our behavior is motivated by biological needs. This can be food, water or shelter.

• Homeostasis - Balanced state out body seeks.

• Arousal (Sensation Seeking Theory) Theory - States people seek the optimum level of excitement or arousal.

• Boredom Susceptibility - People that seek high level thrill activites are susceptible to becoming bored.

• Optimal Level of Arousal - Specific level of stimulation, alertness or readiness that allows for peak performance and well being.

• Yerkes-Dodson Law - Describes the relationship between arousal (stress or excitement) and performance. It suggests that individuals perform best at a moderate level of arousal, with both very low and very high arousal levels hindering performance.

• Opponent Process Theory of Motivation - People are usually at a normal state and they might do an act that moves them from baseline state (like smoking), they will then feel a motivation to move them back to baseline state, but then discomfort of withdrawal will move them back. This is mosotly used with addictive behaviors.

• Incentives - Stimuli we are drawn to due to learning.

• Self-Determination Theory - Grew on intrinsic motivations for behavior. Idea that 3 compenents are related to intrinsic motivations. Autonomy (We have power to make important choices to us), competence (Belief we have skills and knowledge needed to accomplish important tasks to us) and relatedness (Ability to form relationships with others important to us). Predicts this combination impacts our ability to be self-determined.

• Bulimia - People who consume large amounts of food in a short time (binging) then force it to exit their body with vomiting/laxatives etc. Majority are women.

• Anorexia Nervosa - People who starve themselves to 85 % below their body weight and refuse to eat. Majority are women.

• Initial Excitement - Genital areas become engorged with blood. Penis becomes erect, clitoris swells. Respiration and heart rate increase.

• Plateau Phase - Respiration and heart rate continue at an elevated level; genitals secrete fluids in preparation for coitus.

• Orgasm - Rhythmic genital contractions that may help conception, respiration, and heart rate increase further. Males ejaculate, often accompanied by a pleasurable euphoria.

• Resolution Phase - Respiration and heart rate return to normal resting states. Male systems have a refractory period-time must elapse before next orgasm. Females do not and can repeat the cycle immediately.

• Acheivement Motivation - Examines our desires to master complex tasks and knowledge and to reach personal goals. Some people are more motivated than others.

• Extrinsic Motivations - Rewards we get for accomplishments from outside ourselves (grades, money) Effective for short periods of time.

• Intrinsic Motivations - Rewards we get internally, such as enjoyment or satisfaction. Effective for a longer period of time.

• Theory X (Management Theory) - Managers believe that employees will work only if rewarded wih benefits or threatened with punishments.

• Theory Y (Management Theory) - Managers believe that employees are internally motivated to do good work and policies should encourage this internal motive.

• Lewin’s Motivational Conflicts Theory - Three major types of motivation conflicts, approach approach, avoidance avoidance, approach avoidence.

• Approach-Approach conflict - Part of Lewin’s motivational conflicts theory where you must choose between two desirable outcomes.

• Avoidance-Avoidance Conflict - Part of Lewin’s motivational conflicts theory where you must choose between two unattractive outcomes.

• Approach-Avoidance Conflict - Part of Lewin’s motivational conflicts theory where one event of goal has both attractive and unattractive features.

• Facial feedback hypothesis - Idea related to James Lange theory we feel emotional because of biological changes caused by stress, Facial feedback is the idea we infer our emotions from our facial expressions. Walter Cannon and Philiip Bard doubted this order of events.

• Two Factor Theory - Points out both physical responses and our cognitive appraisal of them (mental interpretations) combined to cause any particular emotional response. Emotion depends on interaction between biology and cognition.

• Cognitive Label - Mental interpretation an individual assigns to an event.

• Display Rules - The culturally specific social norms that dictate how and when emotions should be expressed.

Unit 5

• Eustress - Positive and motivating stress

• Distress - Negative and debilitating stress

• Stressors - Stress that refers to life events

• Stress Reactions - How well we react to stressors.

• Social Readjustment Rating Scale (SRRS) - Scale that measures stress using life change units (LCUs) created by Thomas Holmes and Richard Rahe. Major life changes, positive or negative, increase the score.

• General Adaptation Syndrom (GAS) - Model by Hans Selye that describes the general response humans and other animals have to a stressful event. Stages include alarm reaction, resistance and exhaustion.

• Alarm Reaction (GAS) - Heart rate increases, blood is diverted from other bodily functions to muscles (to react). Body readies itself to meet challenge through activation of sympathetic nervous system.

• Resistance (GAS) - Body remains physiologically ready (high heart rate). Hormones are released to maintain readiness. If this stage lasts too long, body depletes resources.

• Exhaustion (GAS) - Parasympathetic nervous system returns our state to nornmal. We can be more vulnerable to disease in this stage, especially if resourcese were depleted by an extended resistance stage.

• Hypertension - High blood pressure that can be caused by stress

• Immune Suppression - Weakening of the body’s ability to fight diseases.

• Tend-and-Befriend Theory - Some people successfully manage stress by seeking ways to tend their own self-care needs and attend to needs of friends and family members. These social connection activities can help reduce stress.

• Emotion-focused Coping - Some people use specific stress management techniques such as meditation/mindfulness exercises, breathing techniques, or combining these techniques with medications prescribed by clinical psychologists.

• Positive Psychology - Shares optimism of humanistic psychology but supports its theories with empirical evidence from research studies. Investigates how humans can flourish, maximize potential, acheive happiness and improve life quality.

• Subjective well being - Area studied by positive psychologists that is a sense of how satisfied a person is with their life overall.

• Six Core Virtues - Positive Psychology aspects of personality they can measure. Wisdom, courage, humanity, justice, temperance and transcendence.

• Wisdom - Being able to use information creatively, being open-minded and retaining curiosity.

• Courage - Includes persistence and integrity as well as bravery.

• Humanity - Appreciation of, kindness and interest in others.

• Justice - Striving to be a socially responsible citizen and striving to improve the world.

• Temperance - Moderation, eschews excess and encourages self control

• Transcendence - Seeing beyond onesself and valuing one’s connection with the world, including nature, beauty and hope for the future.

• Well-Being - Overall perception of the quality of our lives.

• Gratitude - Expressing thankfulness towards others

• Resilience - People can adapt effectively when faced with trauma and extreme stress.

• Post-Traumatic Growth - Ability to construct a meaningful experience in response to a period of trauma

• General Intelligence (G factor) - Idea person’s overall intelligence is a combination of traits.

• Dysfunction - Any impairment, disturbance, or deficiency in behavior or operation.

• Distress - Negative or debilitating stress response that can hurt you and loved ones.

• Deviance - Behavior that is different than what is considered typical.

• Insane - Not a psychology term, a legal term to plead innocent.

• International Classification of Mental Disorders (ICD) - Resource by who that can help determine is someone has a psychological disorder.

• Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM) Resource used by the American Psychiatric Association to determine if someone has a psychological disorder. DSM-5 most updated version.

• Adverse Childhood Experiences (ACEs) - Psychodynamic theorists may locate the cause of something to be from averse childhood experiences.

• Maladaptive Learned Associations - Cognitive theoristis locate source of psychological disorders here. These are connections between stimuli and responses that hinder an individual's ability to function normally in daily life or adjust to specific situations.

• Sociocultural Perspective - Emphasizes the influence of social and cultural environments on an individual's behavior and mental processes. This perspective believes that social ills like racism and sexism can cause psychological disorders.

• Biopsychosocial Approach - Approach to psychology that combines the bio, the psycho and the social as a perspective. They believe psychological problems arise from all three of the factors in the name.

• Diathesis-Stress Model - Model that explains environmental stressors can provide circumstances for a biological predisposition for illness can express itself.

• Autism Spectrum Disorder- Neurodevelopmental disorder characterized by persistent deficits in social communication and interaction, along with restricted and repetitive patterns of behaviors, interests, or activities. Can also be sensitive to sensory stimulation.

• Attention Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) - Trouble paying attention or sitting still, they can hyperfocus on things interesting to them.

• Specific Phobia - Intense unwarranted fear of a situation or object such as claustrophobia (Spaces) or arachnophobia (Spiders)

• Agoraphobia - Fear of open, public spaces.

• Social Anxiety Disorder - Fear of a situation where one could embarass themself.

• Taijin Kyofusho - Type of social anxiety where one is concerned their body is displeasing to others.

• Generalized Anxiety Disorder (GAD) - Someone who experiences constant, low-level anxiety.

• Panic Disorder - Someone suffers from acute episodes of anxiety without provocation.

• Panic Attacks - Sudden intense episode of fear with symptoms. Caribbean cultures, called ataque de nervios.

• Acrophobia - Fear of heights.

• Somatic Symptom Disorders - Someone experiences a physical problem without a physical cause.

• Dissociation - Break or separation from memories or thoughts or a sense of who they are.

• Dissociative Amnesia - Person cannot remember things and no physical basis for disruption can be identified. Biologically induced amnesia is called organic amnesia.

• Dissociative Identity Disorder (Multiple Personality Disorder) - Person has several personalities instead of one. They can have any number of personalities. Commonly these people have history of childhood trauma.

• Dissociative Disorders - Disorders where someone does not fully identify with themself.

• Bipolar Disorder - Involves both depressed and manic episodes (feelings of high energy, inflatened sense of power or irritable/anxious/ Usually engage in risky or poorly thought out behavior)

• Bipolar I Disorder - A mental health condition characterized by at least one manic episode, which may or may not be accompanied by depressive episodes.

• Bipolar II Disorders - Difference between this and one is that this one has at least one episode of hypomania (less extreme version of mania)

• Major Depressive Disorder (Unipolar disorder) - Most common mood disorder and is when people remain depressed more more than two weeks without a specific reason and experience other symptoms.

• Seasonal Affective Disorder (SAD) - People who experience depression but only during certain times of year, usually winter with less sunlight.

• Cognitive Triad - Idea Aaron Beck had about why depression happens. Becuase of unreasonably negative ideas people have about themselves, their world and futures.

• Learned Helplessness - Martin Seligman’s idea where people experience bad situations they have no control over and they eventually just stop trying to change the outcome.

• Schizophrenia Spectrum Disorders - Disordered, distorted thinking demonstrated through delusions, hallucinations, disorganized thinking, speech and motor behavior.

• Delusions - Belief with no basis in reality.

• Disorganized thinking/speech/motor behaviors - Lack of cohesion and clarity in one’s thoughts, language is unclear, unusual movements like odd posture.

• Delusions of Persecution - Belief people are out to get you

• Delusions of Grandeur - Belief you enjoy greater power and influence thant you do

• Hallucinations - Perceptions in the absence of sensory stimuli

• Neologisms - Schizophrenics make up their own words

• Clang Associations - Schizophrenics may string together nonsense rhyming words.

• Word Salad - Disorganized and unintelligible speech and writing.

• Flat Affect - Shizophrenics with no emotional response to something

• Catatonia - motor problem can stay motionless for hours at a time or move in quick and jerky moves.

• Positive Symptoms - Symptoms of schizophrenia where they have excesses of behavior though and moods.

• Negative Symptoms - Symptoms of schizophrenia where they have deficits such as flat effect or catatonic stupor (immobility, unresponsiveness).

• Dopamine Hypothesis - High levels of dopamine seem to be associated with schizophrenia. Known because schizophrenics are treated with antipsychotics that cause lower dopamine levels.

• Tardive dyskinesia - muscle stiffness and tremors

• Double Blind - People are given contradictory messages, can lead to confusion which some suggest may lead to schizophrenia

• Cluster A - Type of personality disorder with suspicious or eccentric behaviors and includes paranoid, schizoid and schizotypal personality disorders.

• Cluster B - Impulsive, emotional, dramatic and erratic tendencies and includes antisocial, histronic (dramatic), narcissistic and borderline personality disorders (instability in relationships, self image.)

• Antisocial Personality Disorder - People who have little regard for other people’s feelings, view world as a hostile place where people need to look out for themselves.

• Narcissistic Personality Disorder - Oneself is the center of the universe

• Histronic Personality Disorder - Overly dramatic behavior (histronics)

• Cluster C - Includes anxiety, avoidant, dependent, and obsessive compulsive personality disorders.

• Avoidant Personality disorder - Feelings of inadequacy, avoid social situations and sensitive to criticisms.

• Dependent Personality Disorder - People who rely too much on attention and help of others

• Obsessive Compulsive Personality Disorder - People are overly concerned with certain thoughts and behaviors and may have a tendency towards perfectionism.

• Obsessive Compulsive Disorder (OCD) - Persistent unwanted thoughts (obsessions) cause someone to feel the need (compulsion) to engage in a particular action. Ex. Cleanliness

• Hoarding Disorder - People collect items

• Body Dismorphic Disorder - Obsession with perceived defects related to one s appearance.

• Post traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) - Involves flashbacks or nightmares following a person’s involvement in a traumatic event. Similar to OCD.

• Paraphilias (Psychosexual disorders) - Sexual attraction to object, person or activity not usually seen as sexual.

• Substance-Related/Addictive Disorders - Disorders where a diagnosis is made when the use of substances or behaviors negatively affect a persons life.

• Rosenham Study - David Rosenham and his buddies said they heard voices and while they were there, everything they did was apparently their schizophrenia, even when they acted normal.

• Psychodynamic Therapy - Couch therapy, patient talks about life and they try to find underlying cause of a problem in the unconscious mind.

• Symptom Substitution - After a person has been successfully treated for a psych disorder, they get a brand new one.

• Hypnosis - Altered state of consciousness

• Free associate - Psychodynamic therapy method where patients are encouraged to say whatever comes to mind without thinking.

• Dream Interpretation - Psychodynamic therapy technique where people describe their dreams and therapists analyze.

• Manifest Content - What patients report from a dream

• Latent Content - Hidden content of a dream

• Transference - Patients redirect strong feelings at their therapist and then therapists can interpret patient transference.

• Insight Therapies - Therapies that highlight the important of patients and clients gaining insight to their problems.

• Person-centered Therapy (Client Centered Therapy) - By Carl Rogers, therapist provides client with unconditioned positive regard (blanket acceptance)

• Active Listening - Encouraging clients to talk about how they feel and mirror feelings back for a client.

• Gestalt Psychologists - Encourage clients to get in touch with their whole selves, stress important of present and tell clients to explore feelings and parts of their body they may not be aware of.

• Existential Therapies - Humanistic Theraapies that focus on helping clients acheive a meaningful perception of their lives.

• Applied Behavior Analysis (ABA) - Behaviorist approach to therapy that sets up systems of reinforcement to help clients be successful in the world.

• Counterconditioning - Kind of classical conditioning where unpleasant conditioned responses are replaced by pleasant ones.

• Systemic Desensitization - Teaching clients to replace anxiety feelings with relaxation by helping them relax.

• Anxiety or Fear Hierarchy - Used in systemic desensitization, therapist and client create a rank ordered list of what a client fears. Then in process of vivo desensitization, client confronts feared objects of situations. Cover desensitization, client imagines fear inducing stimli.

• Flooding - Can be vivo or covert, involves having client address mos frightening scenario for their fear first.

• Modeling (Therapy) - Process where one learns from watching them imitating behavior can be used in therapy.

• Aversive Therapy - Pairing a habit someone watns to break with unpleasant stimulus.

• Token Economy - Desired behaviors are identified and rewarded with tokens, which can be traded for objects or privileges.

• Cognitive Restructuring - Goal of cognitive therapy where client maladaptive thinking is challenged because therapists challenge irrational thinking patterns of clients.

• Cognitive Behavioral Therapy (CBT) - Combines ideas of cognitive and behavioral psychologists. Type can be rational emotive behavior therapy (REBT/RBT).

• Rational Emotive Behavior Therapy - Exposing and confronting dysfunctional thoughts of clients. Helps them see it isn’t as bad as they think it is.

• Psychoactive medications (Psychotropic Medications) - Treat many kinds of psychological prblems from anxiety to schizophrenia. More severe a disorder, more likely it gets handed off to drugs.

• Antipsychotic Medications - Thorazine or Haldol - Block receptor sites for dopmamine, could cause tardive dyskinesia.

• Unipolar Disorder Treatments - Tricyclic antidepressents, monoamine oxidase (MAO) inhibitors, serotonin selective reuptake inhibitors. Increase activity of serotonin.

• Lithium - Metal that can treat manic phase of bipolar disorder.

• Antianxiety Drugs - Drugs that depress the central nervous system to make people relax. Main types are barbituates (Miltown) and benxodiazphines like Xanax/Valium.

• Biofeedback - Type of therapy commonly used in treatment of anxiety and depression. Patient is taught to recognize and control physical responses like breathing and heartrate without meds.

• Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation (TMS) - Uses magnetics to alter brain activity and is used to treat depression.

• Electroconvulsive Therapy (ECT) - In bilateral ECT, electrical current is passed through both hemispheres of the brain. Has more side effects than unilateral. Unilateral is only one.

• Psychosurgery - Purposeful destruction of part of the brain to alter someone’s behavior. Ex. Prefrontal Lobotomy

• Prefrontal Lobotomy - Cutting main neurons up to the frontal lobe of the brain, calms patient behavior, recuded level of functioning and caused vegetative state.

• Psychiatrists - Medical doctors and can perscribe medication. Often favor biomedical model and are less trained in psychotherapy.

• Clinical Psychologists - Earn phDs, and deal with people suffering from problems more severe than everyday difficulties.

• Counseling therapists or psychotherapists - Have some kind of graduate degree and internship, can be school psychologists and help people with less severe problems.

• APA Principles with Clincians - Respect people’s rights and dignity, act with fidelity, integrity, cultural humility, and nonmaleficence (medical obligation not to harm)

• Therapeutic Alliance - Relationship between client and therapist

• Evidence Based Intervention - Strategies proven effective through research.