psych learning module (3.7a, 3.7b, 3.8a, 3.8b, 3.9)

behavioral perspective

examines how observable behaviors are learned and reinforced through interactions with the environment

adaptability

our capacity to learn new behaviors that can help us cope with our changing world

learning

the process of acquiring through experience new and relatively enduring information or behaviors

association

mind naturally connects events that occur in sequence

learning associations feed habitual behaviors

habituation

decreasing responsiveness with repeated stimulation; as infants gain familiarity with repeated exposure to a stimulus, their interest wanes and they look away sooner

what happens when repeated stimulation produces waning responsiveness

non-associative learning; occurs when organisms grow accustomed to and exhibit diminished response to a repeated stimulus (aka getting used to something over time)

associative learning

learning that certain events occur together; the events may be two stimuli (as in classical conditioning) or a response and its consequence (as in operant conditioning)

process of learning in which individuals form connections between events that occur together (includes classical and operant conditioning)

classical conditioning

learn to associate two stimuli and thus to anticipate events

a type of learning in which we link two or more stimuli

illustrated with Pavlov’s classic experiment, the first stimulus (a tone) comes to elicit behavior (drooling) in anticipation of the second stimulus (food)

learning method where we associate two stimuli, leading to anticipation of events

stimulus

any event or situation that evokes a response

respondent behavior

associate stimuli that we do not control, and we respond automatically

cognitive learning

the acquisition of mental information, whether by observing events, by watching others, or through language

observational learning

a form of cognitive learning, lets us learn from others’ experiences

behaviorism

the view that psychology should be an objective science that studies behavior without reference to mental processes

neutral stimuli (NS)

in classical conditioning, a stimulus that elicits no response before conditioning

unconditioned stimulus (UCS)

in classical conditioning, a stimulus that unconditionally — naturally and automatically — triggers an unconditioned response UCR)

stimulus that naturally and automatically triggers a response without learning

unconditioned response (UCS)

in classical conditioning, an unlearned, naturally occurring response (such as salivation) to an unconditioned stimulus (UCS) (such as food in the mouth)

natural and automatic reaction to a stimulus without prior learning or conditioning

conditioned stimulus

in classical conditioning, an originally neutral stimulus that, after association with an unconditioned stimulus (UCS), comes to trigger a conditioned response (CR)

previously neutral stimulus that, after repeatedly paired with unconditioned stimulus, evokes a conditioned response

conditioned response (CR)

in classical conditioning, a learned response to a previously neutral (but now conditioned) stimulus (CS)

learned response that occurs when conditioned stimulus is presented, resulting from association with unconditioned stimulus

acquisition

in classical conditioning, the initial stage, when one links a neutral stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus so that the neutral stimulus begins triggering the conditioned response. In operant conditioning, the strengthening of a reinforced response

the initial learning of an association

higher order conditioning

a procedure in which the conditioned stimulus in one conditioning experience is paired with a new neutral stimulus, creating a second (often weaker) conditioned stimulus

for example, an animal that has learned that a tone predicts food might then learn that a light predicts the tone and begin responding to the light alone (aka second-order conditioning.)

process where a previously conditioned stimulus is used to create further associations with new neutral stimuli, resulting in these stimuli also eliciting a conditioned response

counterconditioning

changing a learned response to something more preferable by pairing it with a different experience

ex: reversing a phobia, like baby Peter

extinction

in classical conditioning, the diminishing of a conditioned response when an unconditioned stimulus does not follow a conditioned stimulus (in operant conditioning, when a response is no longer reinforced)

process where a conditioned response weakens and eventually disappears when the conditioned stimulus is repeatedly presented without the unconditioned stimulus

spontaneous recovery

the reappearance, after a pause, of a weakened conditioned response

reappearance of a previously extinguished condition after a rest period, suggesting that extinction does not erase association, but temporarily suppresses it

classical generalization

(also called stimulus generalization) in classical conditioning, the tendency, once a response has been conditioned, for stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus to elicit similar responses (in operant conditioning, when responses learned in one situation occur in other, similar situations)

tendency to response to stimuli that are similar to the conditioned stimulus, as a result of the conditioning process

classical discrimination

in classical conditioning, the learned ability to distinguish between a conditioned stimulus and other stimuli that have not been associated with a conditioned stimulus (in operant conditioning, the ability to distinguish responses that are reinforced from similar responses that are not reinforced)

ability to differentiate between similar stimuli and respond differently to them, learned through the conditioning process

conditioning impacts on health

drug cravings, food cravings, immune responses

Watson’s (1913) idea

human emotions and behaviors, though biologically influenced, are mainly a bundle of conditioned responses

little albert experiment

“Little Albert” feared loud noises but not white rats. Watson and Rayner presented a white rat and, as Little Albert reached to touch it, struck a hammer against a steel bar just behind his head. After seven repeats of seeing the rat and hearing the frightening noise, Albert burst into tears at the mere sight of the rat. Five days later, he reportedly generalized this startled fear reaction to the sight of a rabbit, a dog, and even a furry coat.

example of how fears are often conditioned

preparedness

a biological predisposition to learn associations, such as between taste and nausea, that have survival value

innate tendency of organisms to quickly learn associations between certain stimuli and responses that are relevant to their survival (such as fear or danger)

taste aversion response

learned association between the taste of a particular food and feeling sick, often occurring after only one pairing

example of one trial conditioning

one trial conditioning

single pairing of stimulus (ex oysters) and response (ex illness) will be enough to create an association, and your new aversion won’t be strengthened by further pairings

learning that happens quickly after just one pairing of two things

operant conditioning

learn to associate a response (our behavior) and its consequence; we (and other animals) learn to repeat acts that are followed by good results

type of learning in which behavior is strengthened or weakened by consequences such as reinforcement or punishment

ex: BF Skinner’s pigeon experiment

operant behaviors

behavior that operates on the environment, producing a consequence

law of effect

Thorndike’s principle that behaviors followed by favorable (or reinforcing) consequences become more likely, and that behaviors followed by unfavorable (or punishing) consequences become less likely

behaviors followed by favorable outcomes are more likely to be repeated, while behaviors followed by unfavorable outcomes are less likely to be repeated

operant chamber aka skinner box

in operant conditioning research, a chamber (also known as a Skinner box) containing a bar or key that an animal can manipulate to obtain a food or water reinforcer; attached devices record the animal’s rate of bar pressing or key pecking

reinforcement

in operant conditioning, any event that strengthens the behavior it follows

any consequence that increases the likelihood of a behavior occurring again in the future

shaping

an operant conditioning procedure in which reinforcers guide behavior toward closer and closer approximations of the desired behavior

gradually reinforcing a desirable stimulus after a behavior to decrease the likelihood of that behavior happening in the future

reinforcement discrimination

in operant conditioning, ability to distinguish between different stimuli and respond appropriately based on the presence or absence of reinforcement

reinforcement generalization

in operant conditioning, the tendency to respond similarly to different stimuli that are associated with the same reinforcement

discriminative stimulus

in operant conditioning, a stimulus that elicits a response after association with reinforcement (in contrast to related stimuli not associated with reinforcement)

positive reinforcement

increasing behaviors by presenting a pleasurable stimulus; a positive reinforcer is any stimulus that, when presented after a response, strengthens the response

presenting a desirable stimulus after a behavior to increase the likelihood of that behavior occurring in the future

negative reinforcement

increasing behaviors by stopping or reducing an aversive stimulus; a negative reinforcer is any stimulus that, when removed after a response, strengthens the response. (negative reinforcement is not punishment)

removing an aversice stimulus after a behavior to increase the likelihood of that behavior occurring in the future

primary reinforces/reinforcement

an innately reinforcing stimulus, such as one that satisfies a biological need

things we naturally like and need for survival (ex food, water, shelter)

conditioned reinforcers/secondary reinforcement

a stimulus that gains its reinforcing power through its association with a primary reinforcer

things we learn to like because they are connected to primary reinforcers or other things we like (ex money, praise)

immediate reinforcers

offer immediate payback

delayed reinforcers

require the ability to delay gratification

reinforcement schedule

a pattern that defines how often a desired response will be reinforced

continuous reinforcement schedule

reinforcing the desired response every time it occurs

partial (intermittent) reinforcement schedule

reinforcing a response only part of the time; results in slower acquisition of a response but much greater resistance to extinction than does continuous reinforcement

fixed ratio schedule

in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified number of responses

variable ratio schedule

in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response after an unpredictable number of responses

fixed interval schedule

in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified time has elapsed

variable interval schedule

in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response at unpredictable time intervals

punishment

an event that tends to decrease the behavior that it follows

any consequence that decreases the likelihood of a behavior occurring in the future

positive punishment

adding aversive stimuli after a behavior to decrease the likelihood of that behavior occurring in the future

negative punishment

removing a desirable stimulus after a behavior to decrease the likelihood of that behavior occurring in the future

negatives to physical punishment

1. punished behavior is suppressed, not forgotten

2. physical punishment does not replace the unwanted behavior

3. punishment teaches discrimination among situations

4. punishment can teach fear

5. physical punishment may increase aggression by modeling violence as a way to cope with problems

instinctive drift

the tendency of learned behavior to gradually revert to biologically predisposed pattern

animals reverting to their natural instincts instead of learning new behaviors through training (operant conditioning)

superstitious behavior

accidental reinforcement of behaviors, leading to the belief that those behaviors are causing desired outcomes, even when they are not

classical vs operant conditioning

operant conditioning uses

• teachers guide student’s behaviors

• coaches build players’ skills and self-esteem

• ai developed with reinforcement shows limits of human learning

• parents support desired behaviors and prevent undesired behaviors

operant conditioning for self goals

state realistic goals, plan how to work for toward goal, monitor frequency of desired behaviors, reinforce desired behaviors, reduce rewards as behaviors become habitual

cognitive map

a mental representation of the layout of one’s environment (ex: after exploring a maze, rats act as if they have learned a cognitive map of it)

latent learning

learning that occurs but is not apparent until there is an incentive to demonstrate it

insight learning

solving problems through sudden insight; contrasts with strategy-based solutions

observational learning/social learning

learning by observing others

modeling

the process of observing and imitating a specific behavior

mirror neurons

neurons that some scientists believe fire when we perform certain actions or observe another doing so; the brain’s mirroring of another’s action may enable imitation and empathy

prosocial behaviors

positive, constructive, helpful behavior; the opposite of antisocial behavior

antisocial behaviors

negative, destructive, harmful behavior; the opposite of prosocial behavior