BIOL 243 Exam 1

anatomy

study of the structure of body parts and their relationship to one another

physiology

study of the function of body parts; how they work to carry out life-sustaining activities

chemical level

atoms, molecules, and organelles

cellular level:

single cell

tissue level

groups of similar cells

organ level

contains two or more types of tissues

organ system level

organs that work closely together

organismal level

all organ systems combined to make the whole organism

requirements for life

movement, responsiveness, digestion, metabolism, excretion, reproduction, and growth

what is resposiveness

ability to see and respond to stimuli

digestion

breakdown of ingested food, followed by absorption of molecules into blood

metabolism

all chemical reactions that occur in body cells, sum of all catabolism (breakdown of molecules) and anabolism (synthesis of molecules)

excretion

removal of wastes from metabolism and digestion; urea (from breakdown of proteins), carbon dioxide (from metabolism), feces (unabsorbed foods)

reproduction

at the cellular level, reproduction involves division of cells for growth or repair. at organismal level reproduction is the production of offspring

growth

increase in the size of a body part or organism

survival needs

nutrients, oxygen, water, normal body temperature, appropriate atmospheric pressure

nutrients

chemicals for energy and cell building; (carbohydrates, proteins, fats, minerals, and vitamins)

oxygen

essential for release of energy from foods; the body can only survive for a few minutes without oxygen

water

most abundant chemical in body; provides the watery envioroment needed for chemical reactions; fluid base for secretions and excretions

normal body temp

if body temp falls below or goes above 37 degrees celsius, rates of chemical reactions are affected

appropriate atmospheric pressure

specific pressure of air is needed for adequate breathing and gas exchange in lungs

Parts of homeostatic control system

sensor, controller, effector

sensor (receptor)

monitor internal and external environment; respond to stimuli (things that cause changes in controlled variables)

controller (control center)

determine set point at which a variable is maintained, receive input from sensor, determine appropriate response

effector

receive output from control center, provide the means to respond, response either reduces stimulus (negative feedback) or enhances stimulus (positive feedback)

negative feedback mechanism

insulin regulating blood sugar and kidneys regulating electrolyte balance

positive feedback mechanisms

very rare in the body, labor through release of oxytocin and platelet recruitment/clotting after injury

sagittal plane

splits body into right and left sections

frontal/coronal

splits body into ventral/dorsal sections

transverse

splits body into superior/inferior sections

what makes up the dorsal body cavity

cranial and vertebral

what makes up the ventral body cavity

thoracic and abdominopelvic

serous fluid

prevents friction between membranes

pleural membrane surrounds

lungs

peritoneal membrane surrounds

abdominopelvic cavity

pericardial membrane surrounds

heart

what cavities are exposed to the external environment

digestive (oral and anal), nasal, orbital, and middle ear cavities

monomer, function, and types of Carbohydrates

monomer= simple sugars like glucose
elements= C,H,O
functions= first source of energy can be stored as glycogen in animals and starch in plants
types= glycogen, starch, cellulose, chitin

monomer, function, and types of lipids

monomers= fatty acids, glycerols
functions= long-term energy storage, insulation, cushioning, steroids
types= phospholipids, triglycerides, steroids like cholesterol, hormones

saturated fats are

solid at room temp because they only contain single carbon-hydrogen bonds, allowing chains to be more compact (tight)

unsaturated fats are

liquid due to double bonds in structure that cause "kinks" in chains and require more space between molecules (loose)

monomer, function, and types of proteins

monomer= amino acids
functions= movement, structure, transport, hormones, enzymes
types= globular and fibrous

globular proteins have what structure

3D structure

primary level of protein structure

linear sequence of amino acids

secondary level of protein structure

the result of primary amino acids interacting; alpha helices and beta pleated sheets

tertiary level of protein structure

the result of secondary structures (helices and sheets) interacting

quaternary level of protein structure

how two or more polypeptides interact with each other

denaturation

occurs when pH or temp is changed; permanent if extreme

enzymes

speed up the rate of chemical reactions by lowering the activation energy at which reactions occur, require specific temperature and pH to function (could perhaps expect a figure/graph related to this)

monomer, function, and types of nucleic acids

monomer= nucleotides (made up of phosphate, sugar, and nitrogen base)
functions= store and transmit genetic info
types= DNA and RNA

ATP (adenosine triphosphate)

composed of adenine + ribose and 3 phosphate groups; energy is released when high energy bond between the last two phosphate groups is broken; energy can be "added" back by reforming the bond and reattaching a phosphate group; when one phosphate group is lost ADP forms when two or are lost AMP is formed

prokaryotic cells

no nucleus, DNA is in nucleoid region, no membrane bound organelles, only ribosomes, have a flagellum

eukaryotic cells

DNA in nucleus, several membrane bound organelles contribute overall function of the cell

ribosomes

protein synthesis; found on RER and in cytosol

cell membrane

semi permeable, barrier inside/outside, transport

mitchondrion

metabolic activities including cellular respiration (produces ATP)

nucleus

contains DNA, site of DNA replication and transcription

golgi apparatus

protein packaging for transport

vesicle

transport of proteins and other molecules between organelles

rough ER

dotted with ribosomes, functions in protein synthesis

lysosome

sac containing enzymes to breakdown and recycle biomolecules

smooth ER

synthesizes lipids, metabolizes carbs, clears drugs/toxins

parts of cell membrane

phospholipids, proteins, cholesterol

phospholipids

polar heads that are hydrophilic, nonpolar tails that are hydrophobic; form a phospholipid bilayer

proteins

integral (transmembrane) embedded in membrane and span all the way across from inside cell to outside; peripheral- attached to the outside or inside of the cell

cholesterol

form steroid hormones, regulate fluidity of cell membrane- more cholesterol = more rigid

fluid mosaic model

parts of the membrane are freely moving can't flip without flippase/floppase/scramblase enzymes

passive transport

doesn't require ATP

simple diffusion

movement of molecules from an area of high concentration to an area of lower concentration down a concentration gradient

osmosis

movement of water molecules from an area of high concentration to an area of lower concentration down a concentration gradient

isotonic

the same concentration of solutes as another solution

hypertonic

solute concentration is higher outside the cell than inside the cell, cell shrinks

hypotonic

solute concentration outside the cell is lower than inside the cell, cell swells

facilitated diffusion

proteins (channel or carrier) are used to move molecules from an area of high concentration to an area of lower concentration down a concentration gradient

active transport

requires ATP; endocytosis and exocytosis

transport proteins

use of proteins to move molecules from an area of low concentration to an area of high concentration against a concentration gradient

endocytosis

movement of large materials into the cell

exocytosis

movement of large materials out of the cell

hemidesmosome

attaches cell to basal lamina of ECM

desmosome

attaches cell to cell and provide elasticity

adherins junction

attaches cell to cell with a stable anchoring point

tight junction

attaches cell to cell, prevents paracellular diffusion

gap junction

attaches cell to cell and establishes a passageway

transcription

converting DNA into mRNA; DNA is trapped in nucleus and must be transcribed into single-stranded mRNA, pre-mRNA must be processed into mRNA by splicing out introns and addign 5' caps and poly A tails

translation

converting mRNA into proteins; mRNA attaches to ribosomes (made of rRNA and proteins), tRNA brings amino acids to the ribosome during translation

apical

exposed to surface or lumen

basolateral

between cell-to-cell or cell-to-basement membrane

basement membrane

separates epithelium and connective tissue underneath

epithelial tissue cell types

squamos- flat; cuboid- cube shaped; columnar- column shaped

simple squamous tissue

thin, single layer of cells, found in alveolar sacs, capillaries, etc.

pseudostratified columnar tissue

single layer that appears as 2 layers, contains goblet cells that secrete mucus

transitional tissue

cells flatten/thin out to allow for stretch, commonly found in bladder

endocrine glands

ductless, secrete hormones into capillaries

exocrine glands

have ducts in which products are secreted; merocrine, apocrine, holocrine

merocrine

secrete through exocytosis (salivary)

apocrine

secrete by pinching off portions of membrane (mammary)

holocrine

secrete by rupturing the cell (sebaceous/oil)

connective tissue functions

protection, structural support, energy storage, insulation, and transport substances within the body

connective tissue fibers

collagen, elastin, reticulin

collagen

bundles, resist tension