AP Psychology Unit 2: Cognition

Perception

The process by which sensory information is organized and interpreted, allowing us to recognize meaningful objects and events.

Bottom-up processing

Information processing that begins with sensory receptors and works up to the brain's integration of sensory information. It relies purely on data from the environment.

Top-down processing

Information processing guided by higher-level cognitive processes, such as experience and expectations, to interpret sensory input.

Schema

A cognitive framework or concept that helps organize and interpret information based on prior knowledge and experience.

Perceptual set

A mental predisposition to perceive one thing and not another, influenced by expectations, experience, and context.

Gestalt psychology

see and understand things as a whole, not just in parts. When you see a bunch of dots in a circle shape, your brain sees a circle—not just dots. When parts of an image are missing, your brain fills in the gaps to make it complete

Closure

A Gestalt principle stating that people tend to fill in gaps in incomplete images to perceive a complete object.

Figure and ground

The organization of the visual field into objects (figures) that stand out from their surroundings (ground).

Proximity

A Gestalt principle stating that objects close to one another tend to be perceived as a group.

Similarity

A Gestalt principle stating that objects that share similar features (e.g., color, shape, texture) tend to be perceived as part of the same group.

Attention

The cognitive process of selectively concentrating on specific information while ignoring other stimuli.

Selective attention

The ability to focus on a particular stimulus while filtering out distractions.

Cocktail party effect

The ability to focus on one auditory stimulus example a conversation while filtering out background noise yet still being able to notice personally relevant information like your name

Inattentional blindness

The failure to see visible objects when attention is directed elsewhere.

Change blindness

A failure to detect significant changes in a visual scene due to a lack of attention.

Binocular depth cues

Depth cues that require the use of both eyes to perceive depth.

Retinal disparity

A binocular cue for perceiving depth based on the slight difference in images between the two eyes.

Convergence

The binocular key for depth perception in which the eyes move inward to focus on a close object

Monocular depth cues

Depth cues that require only one eye, helping us perceive depth in a flat image.

Relative clarity

A monocular cue where distant objects appear hazier than closer objects due to atmospheric interference.

Relative size

A monocular cube in which smaller objects are perceived as farther away than larger objects of the same type

Texture gradient

A monocular cue where objects that are closer have more detailed texture than those further away.

Linear perspective

A monocular cue where parallel lines appear to converge in the distance.

Interposition

A monocular queue, where objects that block other objects are perceived as closer

visual perceptual consistencies

maintain perception of an object even when the images of the object in the visual field changes

Apparent movement

The illusion of movement in a stationary object due to visual cues (e.g., the phi phenomenon in flashing lights).

Prototypes

A mental image or best example of a category, helping in the classification of new objects.

Schemas

Cognitive structures that organize knowledge and guide information processing.

concept

mental category or idea that helps us group and organize things we experience. (ex: concept of anger includes all types of ways people might show or feel anger)

Assimilation

Incorporating new information into existing schemas without changing them (Piaget).

Accommodation

Adjusting or creating new schemas in response to new information (Piaget).

Algorithms

Step-by-step procedures that guarantee a correct solution to a problem.

Heuristics

Simple thinking strategies or mental shortcuts used to make decisions quickly.

Representativeness heuristic

Judging the likelihood of something based on how well it matches a prototype, often leading to errors.

Availability heuristic

estimating the likelihood of events based on how easily examples come to mind

Mental set

The tendency to approach a problem in a familiar way, even if a different method would be more effective.

Priming

The activation of certain associations in memory, often unconsciously influencing perception and behavior.

Framing

The way an issue is presented, affecting decision-making and judgment.

Gambler's fallacy

The belief that past random events influence future outcomes in independent situations (e.g., 'I lost five times, so I must win next').

Sunk-cost fallacy

The tendency to continue investing in something due to prior investment, despite current losses.

Executive functions

higher order, cognitive processes, including planning decision making and impulse control

Creativity

The ability to produce novel and valuable ideas.

Divergent thinking

Expanding the number of possible solutions to a problem (e.g., brainstorming).

Convergent thinking

narrowing down multiple possibilities to determine the single best solution

Functional fixedness

The tendency to perceive objects only in their usual functions, limiting problem-solving ability.

Storage

The retention of encoded information over time.

Retrieval

The process of accessing stored information from memory.

Explicit memory

Memory of facts and experiences that one can consciously recall.

Episodic memory

Memory for personal experiences and specific events.

Semantic memory

Memory for general knowledge and facts.

Implicit memory

Retention of learned skills or conditioning without conscious awareness.

Procedural memory

A type of implicit memory related to skills and habits example riding a bike

Prospective memory

Remembering to perform a future task.

Long-term potentiation

A biological process where repeated stimulation strengthens neural connections, aiding memory formation.

Working memory model

A model that explains short-term memory as an active processing system.

Sensory memory

The immediate, brief recording of sensory information before it is processed.

multi store memory model

proposes 3 interacting systems (sensory, including iconic and echoic, short term, and long term)

Iconic memory

Visual sensory memory, lasting a fraction of a second.

Echoic memory

Auditory sensory memory, lasting a few seconds.

short term memory

holds a small amount of information for a brief period—usually around 15 to 30 seconds. It’s what you use to remember a phone number just long enough to dial it.

long term memory

stores information for a long time—anywhere from minutes to a lifetime. It holds things like facts, experiences, and skills you’ve learned.

Levels of processing model

Theory stating that deeper processing of information leads to better retention. includes structural, phonemic and semantic

structural encoding

shallow processing that focuses on what things look like (like remembering a word based on how it’s written).

phonemic encoding

is a type of memory encoding that focuses on the sound of words., (when you remember a word because it rhymes with another word, you’re using phonemic encoding. It’s a deeper level than just noticing how a word looks)

semantic encoding

process of encoding information by focusing on its meaning.

It’s the deepest and most effective form of encoding for long-term memory. For example, if you remember the word “freedom” because you relate it to a personal experience or understand what it stands for,

Mnemonic devices

Memory aids that use imagery and organization.

encoding

involves processes and strategies to get information into memory how information is encoded can determine how effectively it is stored and retrieved

Method of loci

A mnemonic strategy using visualization of familiar places to recall information.

Chunking

Grouping information into meaningful units to enhance memory.

Hierarchies

Organizing information into categories and subcategories to improve recall.

categories

mental groupings we use to organize things, ideas, or experiences that are similar in some way.

Spacing effect

The tendency for distributed practice to yield better long-term retention than massed practice.

serial position affect

tendency to remember the first and last items in a list better than the middle ones. with primacy effect (beginning) of recency effect (end)

Maintenance rehearsal

Repeating information to keep it in short-term memory.

Elaborative rehearsal

Connecting new information to existing knowledge to aid long-term retention.

autobiographical memory

a type of long-term memory that stores personal life experiences. it includes things like: Your first day of school

infantile amnesia

the inability to recall memories from early childhood, typically before the age of 3 or 4.

recall and recognition

remembering without cues

remembering with cues

Retrograde amnesia

Inability to recall past memories due to brain injury.

Anterograde amnesia

Inability to form new memories due to brain damage.

Retrieval cues

Stimuli that aid memory recall.

Mood-congruent memory

The tendency to recall experiences that match one's current mood.

State-dependent memory

The tendency to recall information better when in the same physiological or emotional state as when it was encoded.

context dependent memory

the environment or situation in which you learn something can help you recall it later, if you study in a particular room, you’re more likely to remember the material better when you’re in that same room during the test

testing effect

phenomenon where retrieving information (e.g., through taking a test) helps improve long-term memory more effectively than simply reviewing the material.

meta cognition

being aware of how well you can recall information and assessing your own memory or understanding during the process.

For example, when studying, you might monitor how confident you feel about retrieving certain facts or concepts. If you realize you don’t remember something well, you might adjust your study strategy—like focusing more on that area or using techniques like self-testing.

inadequate retrieval

unable to effectively or accurately recall information from memory, despite it being stored there., ex: tip of tongue phenomenon

repression

unpleasant or distressing memories or thoughts are pushed out of conscious awareness to protect the individual from emotional pain or anxiety.

source amnesia

memory error where you forget the origin or source of a memory, even though you can still recall the information itself. remember a specific fact or event but not remember whether you learned it from a book, a friend, or a movie.

constructive memory

process of building or reconstructing memories rather than simply retrieving exact, unchanged versions of past events Our memories are not like video recordings; they are influenced by our expectations, beliefs, and prior knowledge. When we recall something, we might fill in gaps or even misremember details based on what seems plausible, which can sometimes lead to distorted or false memories.

memory consolidation

process by which short-term memories are transformed into long-term memories.During this process, memories can be influenced by new experiences, making them more subject to distortion.

imagination inflation

imagining an event or vividly thinking about something can make you more likely to believe it actually happened. In the context of memory, imagining something repeatedly can inflate the confidence that the event occurred, sometimes even creating false memories.

to be considered useful a physiological assessment must be..

standardized when administered using consistent procedures and environments, valid if measured what it’s designed to measure, reliable if yields similar results each time administered

Forgetting curve

Ebbinghaus' graph showing the decline of memory retention over time.

Encoding failure

The inability to store information in long-term memory due to lack of attention.

Proactive interference

When old information disrupts the recall of new information.

Retroactive interference

When new information disrupts the recall of old information.

Misinformation effect

The distortion of memory due to misleading post-event information.

g (general intelligence)

Spearman's idea that intelligence is a single factor influencing multiple cognitive abilities.

Intelligence quotient (IQ)

A numerical measure of intelligence based on standardized tests.