AP Psychology Unit 2: Cognition

Perception

The process by which sensory information is organized and interpreted, allowing us to recognize meaningful objects and events.

Bottom-up processing

Information processing that begins with sensory receptors and works up to the brain's integration of sensory information. It relies purely on data from the environment.

Top-down processing

Information processing guided by higher-level cognitive processes, such as experience and expectations, to interpret sensory input.

Schema

A cognitive framework or concept that helps organize and interpret information based on prior knowledge and experience.

Perceptual set

A mental predisposition to perceive one thing and not another, influenced by expectations, experience, and context.

Gestalt psychology

A psychological approach emphasizing our tendency to integrate pieces of information into meaningful wholes.

Closure

A Gestalt principle stating that people tend to fill in gaps in incomplete images to perceive a complete object.

Figure and ground

The organization of the visual field into objects (figures) that stand out from their surroundings (ground).

Proximity

A Gestalt principle stating that objects close to one another tend to be perceived as a group.

Similarity

A Gestalt principle stating that objects that share similar features (e.g., color, shape, texture) tend to be perceived as part of the same group.

Attention

The cognitive process of selectively concentrating on specific information while ignoring other stimuli.

Selective attention

The ability to focus on a particular stimulus while filtering out distractions.

Cocktail party effect

The ability to focus on one auditory stimulus example a conversation while filtering out background noise yet still being able to notice personally relevant information like your name

Inattentional blindness

The failure to see visible objects when attention is directed elsewhere.

Change blindness

A failure to detect significant changes in a visual scene due to a lack of attention.

Binocular depth cues

Depth cues that require the use of both eyes to perceive depth.

Retinal disparity

A binocular cue for perceiving depth based on the slight difference in images between the two eyes.

Convergence

The binocular key for depth perception in which the eyes move inward to focus on a close object

Monocular depth cues

Depth cues that require only one eye, helping us perceive depth in a flat image.

Relative clarity

A monocular cue where distant objects appear hazier than closer objects due to atmospheric interference.

Relative size

A monocular cube in which smaller objects are perceived as farther away than larger objects of the same type

Texture gradient

A monocular cue where objects that are closer have more detailed texture than those further away.

Linear perspective

A monocular cue where parallel lines appear to converge in the distance.

Interposition

A monocular queue, where objects that block other objects are perceived as closer

Apparent movement

The illusion of movement in a stationary object due to visual cues (e.g., the phi phenomenon in flashing lights).

Prototypes

A mental image or best example of a category, helping in the classification of new objects.

Schemas

Cognitive structures that organize knowledge and guide information processing.

Assimilation

Incorporating new information into existing schemas without changing them (Piaget).

Accommodation

Adjusting or creating new schemas in response to new information (Piaget).

Algorithms

Step-by-step procedures that guarantee a correct solution to a problem.

Heuristics

Simple thinking strategies or mental shortcuts used to make decisions quickly.

Representativeness heuristic

Judging the likelihood of something based on how well it matches a prototype, often leading to errors.

Availability heuristic

estimating the likelihood of events based on how easily examples come to mind

Mental set

The tendency to approach a problem in a familiar way, even if a different method would be more effective.

Priming

The activation of certain associations in memory, often unconsciously influencing perception and behavior.

Framing

The way an issue is presented, affecting decision-making and judgment.

Gambler's fallacy

The belief that past random events influence future outcomes in independent situations (e.g., 'I lost five times, so I must win next').

Sunk-cost fallacy

The tendency to continue investing in something due to prior investment, despite current losses.

Executive functions

higher order, cognitive processes, including planning decision making and impulse control

Creativity

The ability to produce novel and valuable ideas.

Divergent thinking

Expanding the number of possible solutions to a problem (e.g., brainstorming).

Convergent thinking

narrowing down multiple possibilities to determine the single best solution

Functional fixedness

The tendency to perceive objects only in their usual functions, limiting problem-solving ability.

Storage

The retention of encoded information over time.

Retrieval

The process of accessing stored information from memory.

Explicit memory

Memory of facts and experiences that one can consciously recall.

Episodic memory

Memory for personal experiences and specific events.

Semantic memory

Memory for general knowledge and facts.

Implicit memory

Retention of learned skills or conditioning without conscious awareness.

Procedural memory

A type of implicit memory related to skills and habits example riding a bike

Prospective memory

Remembering to perform a future task.

Long-term potentiation

A biological process where repeated stimulation strengthens neural connections, aiding memory formation.

Working memory model

A model that explains short-term memory as an active processing system.

Sensory memory

The immediate, brief recording of sensory information before it is processed.

Iconic memory

Visual sensory memory, lasting a fraction of a second.

Echoic memory

Auditory sensory memory, lasting a few seconds.

Levels of processing model

Theory stating that deeper processing of information leads to better retention.

Mnemonic devices

Memory aids that use imagery and organization.

Method of loci

A mnemonic strategy using visualization of familiar places to recall information.

Chunking

Grouping information into meaningful units to enhance memory.

Hierarchies

Organizing information into categories and subcategories to improve recall.

Spacing effect

The tendency for distributed practice to yield better long-term retention than massed practice.

Maintenance rehearsal

Repeating information to keep it in short-term memory.

Elaborative rehearsal

Connecting new information to existing knowledge to aid long-term retention.

Retrograde amnesia

Inability to recall past memories due to brain injury.

Anterograde amnesia

Inability to form new memories due to brain damage.

Retrieval cues

Stimuli that aid memory recall.

Mood-congruent memory

The tendency to recall experiences that match one's current mood.

State-dependent memory

The tendency to recall information better when in the same physiological or emotional state as when it was encoded.

Forgetting curve

Ebbinghaus' graph showing the decline of memory retention over time.

Encoding failure

The inability to store information in long-term memory due to lack of attention.

Proactive interference

When old information disrupts the recall of new information.

Retroactive interference

When new information disrupts the recall of old information.

Misinformation effect

The distortion of memory due to misleading post-event information.

g (general intelligence)

Spearman's idea that intelligence is a single factor influencing multiple cognitive abilities.

Intelligence quotient (IQ)

A numerical measure of intelligence based on standardized tests.

Flynn Effect

The observed increase in average IQ scores over generations.

Fixed mindset

The belief that intelligence is static and unchangeable.

Growth mindset

The belief that intelligence can develop with effort and learning.