history 26.1

Causes of WWI

Clauses of the treaty of versailles, policy of appeasement, league of nations

Context of the treaty of versailles

Terms were dictated by USA, France and Britain, Germany had no input, signed on the 28th of June 1919

Conditions of the treaty of versailles

Blame, reparations, army restrictions, territory

Blame

War guilt clause made Germany accept full responsiblity for the war, caused humiliation and resentment across Germany

Reparations

Germany was forced to pay reparations to other nations for damage to infrastructure and civilians, total of 132 billion marks

Army restrictions

Limited to 100,000 men, no tanks or airforce allowed, Rhineland was demilitarised, navy was heavily restricted

Territory

Lost 13% of its territory, 10% of its population, all overseas colonies were lost

Context of the League of Nations

Formed in 1919 to maintain collective peace and security, goals were to: prevent war through deterrence, use economic sanctions and military action against aggressors, provide a forum for peaceful dispute resolution

Why the league failed

The USA didn't join weakening its power and influence, Couldn't stop strong nations if others refused to act, smaller nations lacked military strength, major powers feared another world war, countries hesitated to impose sanctions while recovering economically

Context of the policy of appeasement

Britain and France followed appeasement in the 1930s, they feared another world war, ww1 memories were still fresh, economies were too weak for another war, british PM Neville Chamberlain believed Germany was treated too harshly

Why the policy of appeasement failed

Britain and France avoided enforcing the treaty, Hitler rebuilt Germany's military, Germany regained strength and challenged other powers

Germany’s invasion of Poland

On 1 September 1939 Germany invaded Poland, causing Britain and France to declare war on Germany and officially starting World War II

Reason Germany invaded Poland

Hitler sought territorial expansion and Lebensraum, using the invasion to challenge the post‑WWI order and provoke minimal resistance from Britain and France.

Reasons Australia went to war

Australia supported Britain as part of the British Commonwealth, when Britain declared war on Germany, so did Australia

Australians in the European Theatre

Mediterranean: Greece and Crete, Middle East: Syria, North Africa: Tobruk and El Alamein

Australia in the Pacific Theatre

Singapore (8th division), Indonesia, New Guinea, Solomon Islands, New Britain

Why Japan went to war

Resources, security, greater east asia co-prosperity sphere, nationalism, opportunity

Resources

needed raw materials for industrialisation and military expansion, trade embargoes (oil and iron) pushed Japan to seize resources in south east asia

Security

1. Western powers in Asia

• The US, Britain and the Netherlands controlled resource‑rich colonies (Malaya, Indonesia, Philippines).

• Japan feared being surrounded and blocked from expanding.

2. The US Pacific Fleet

• The American navy at Pearl Harbor could stop Japan’s expansion.

• Japan believed war with the US was unavoidable, so a pre‑emptive strike was seen as necessary.

3. Soviet Union threat

• Japan feared the USSR after losing to them in the 1939 border conflict at Khalkhin Gol.

• Japan wanted to secure its southern flank before dealing with the Soviet threat.

4. Economic security

• The US oil embargo (1941) threatened Japan’s ability to run its military.

• Without oil, Japan would be defenceless within months.

5. Strategic security through expansion

• Japan believed controlling Southeast Asia would create a defensive buffer zone.

• This would protect Japan from Western attack and secure long‑term survival.

Nationalism

• Belief in racial superiority

• Desire to lead Asia and remove Western influence

• Pride in military strength

• A mission to “liberate” Asia (which was really domination)

Opportunity

European powers were distracted by war, Japan seized colonies

Why was Singapore important

Britain's major naval base in Asia, Australia believed Singapore protected them from invasion, Australia felt safe while the British had a base at Singapore

Why Singapore fell

British underestimated Japanese skill and speed, Japanese advanced down Malaya using bicycles, defences faced the sea (Japanese attacked from land), British troops were poorly trained (best troops were in Europe), air superiority lost early, reinforcements couldn't arrive in time

Singapore outcome

Fell on the 15th of Feb 1942, 15,000 Australians captured, described as Britain's worst military disaster

Impact on Australia

Australia realised Britain couldn't defend them, turned to USA (General MacArthur takes command), start of long term Australia US alliance

Geneva Convention

1929, promised humane treatment such as food, clothing, medical care and no torture. Japan didn't sign or follow it

Aus POW Locations

Europe 8,000 (generally humane treatment, higher chance of survival), Asia 22,000 (1/3 died)

POWs in Europe

Prisoners were housed in established camps, received Red Cross parcels, and had access to medical treatment and organised activities.

Australian POW conditions

Australian POWs captured by Japan endured some of the harshest conditions of the war due to Japanese cultural beliefs that surrender was shameful. This attitude meant that Allied prisoners were treated with contempt and used as slave labour throughout the Asia‑Pacific region. Australians were forced to work on projects such as the Thai‑Burma Railway, road construction, mines and docks, often with minimal food and no medical supplies. Malnutrition, tropical diseases, beatings and torture were common, and tropical ulcers frequently required amputation without anaesthetic. These brutal conditions explain why one‑third of Australians held by Japan died in captivity.

Changi

the largest Japanese POW camp, held around 15,000 Australians, became a central hub from which prisoners were sent to labour camps across Asia, changi initially had better conditions than other camps, overcrowding, disease and food shortages quickly became severe, prisoners attempted to maintain morale through concerts and organised routines, but the constant threat of being transferred to harsher work sites meant that survival was never guaranteed, experiences of Australian POWs in Asia left long‑lasting physical and psychological trauma

Bombing of Darwin

19 feb 1943, 188 japanese aircraft, destroyed raaf base, ships, hospitals and post office, 240+ killed, 300 to 400 injured, darwin bombed 60 times during the war

Why Darwin?

Japan wanted to neutralise the allied naval base, not invade australia

Impact on darwin

public panic which led to a mass evactuation, government censorship used to prevent national fear, justified curtain's decision to bring troops home

Attack on Sydney harbour

31 may 1942, 3 japanese midget submarines entered the harbour, one caught in the net and self-destructed, one fired torpedoes and sank the HMAS kuttabul and killed 21 soldiers, last submarine was destroyed by depth charges

Impact on sydney

increased fear of invasion, strengthened the australia us alliance, reinforced need for censorship and wartime controls

Political climate in aus

Australia was vulnerable because many aif troops were overseas, curtin becomes pm in 1941 and shifts australia from relying on britain, britain is focused on europe and australia realises it has to defend itself, fear of japanese invasion increases after the fall of singapore

Why did the aus government take control

National security act 1939 gave government broad powers to control civilian life, aim was to protect australia, maintain order and support the war effort

Censorship

• Censorship was introduced under the National Security Act 1939.

• The government controlled newspapers, radio broadcasts, films, letters, telegrams and photographs.

• Purpose:

  • Protect military information (troop movements, bombing damage, supply shortages).

  • Prevent panic and maintain morale.

  • Stop negative or anti‑war sentiment from spreading

• Impact:

  • Australians received a filtered version of the war.

  • Helped maintain unity and support for the war effort.

Propaganda

encouraged support for the war effort, promoted enlistment, rationing , women working and nationa unity

rationing

introduced because shipping lanes were unsafe and supplies were limited, items rationed (food, clothing, petrol), ration cards were used to control consumption

Manpower controls

introduced in jan 1942 to direct australia's workforce toward the war effprt, government could assign people and businesses to essential industries (munitions, steel, military equipment), workforce war industries expanded from 8500 to 1.5 million, work was voluntary, 1924: states lost income tax powers and the commonwealth took control to fund the war, citizens were expected to contribute through arp wardens, first aid, trench digging and camouflage nets.

Aggression in the 1930s

Japan invaded Manchuria, Italy invaded Abyssinia and Germany rearmed, remilitarised the Rhineland and expanded into Austria

Demilitarisation of Rhineland

It weakened Germany’s security, leaving it exposed to France. It symbolised Germany’s defeat and humiliation after WWI. It restricted German sovereignty, because a foreign treaty dictated what Germany could do inside its own borders. It became a major source of anger, helping Hitler gain support by promising to overturn it. When Hitler remilitarised the Rhineland in 1936, Britain and France did nothing — which encouraged him to take even bigger risks later.

Ration Books

Ration books were issued to all Australian households during WWII to control the purchase of scarce goods such as tea, sugar, meat, butter, clothing and petrol. Each person received a booklet of coupons.Ensured fair distribution, prevented hoarding and supported the war effort by directing resources to the military.

Conscription

• Defence Act 1903 gave Commonwealth government power to enforce conscription in defence of the country

• September 1939: National Security Act: allows the government to enact clauses in the defence act e.g. conscription and add extra control that hadn’t been legislated in the Defence Act

• October 1939: conscription enforced by Menzies

• No debate or referendum

• Compulsory training of men over 20

• Enlisted in the CMF (Civilian Military Forces)

AUS Military Forces

Two military forces:

• Second AIF: volunteers, initially deployed to Europe and Singapore

• CMF (later the AMF): conscripts, scope of operations limited to Australia and its territories

Why Pearl Harbour

• Japan needed oil, rubber and iron to continue its expansion in Asia.

• The United States placed an oil embargo on Japan in 1941, threatening Japan’s military survival.

• Japan believed war with the US was inevitable, so it aimed to strike first.

• The goal was to destroy the US Pacific Fleet so Japan could seize Southeast Asia without interference.

What Happened at Pearl Harbour

• 7th December 1941

• Japan launched a surprise air attack on the US naval base at Pearl Harbor, Hawaii.

• Battleships were sunk or damaged, aircraft destroyed, and thousands killed.

Why Pearl Harbour Mattered

• The attack brought the United States into WWII.

• It allowed Japan to rapidly conquer territories such as Malaya, Singapore, the Philippines and the Dutch East Indies.

• It marked the beginning of the Pacific War, directly threatening Australia.

What did Japanese Nationalism Justify

This nationalism justified:

• Expansion into China and Southeast Asia

• Harsh treatment of conquered peoples

• The Greater East Asia Co‑Prosperity Sphere

• The attack on Pearl Harbor

• Brutal treatment of POWs (surrender seen as shameful)

Why Greater Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere

• Gain access to resources (oil, rubber, tin, food).

• Build a self‑sufficient empire controlled by Japan.

• Remove Western powers (Britain, France, the US, the Netherlands) from Asia.

• Justify expansion as “liberation” while actually imposing strict military rule.

Why Greater Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere

• It explains Japan’s aggressive expansion into China, Southeast Asia and the Pacific.

• It contributed directly to conflicts with the US, Britain and Australia.

• It shaped Japan’s treatment of conquered peoples and POWs — harsh labour, exploitation, and brutality.