Learning

learning

a relatively permanent change in an organism’s behavior due to experience

habituation

an organism’s decreasing response to a stimulus with repeated exposure to it

associative learning

learning that certain events occur together. The events may be two stimuli (CC) or a response and its consequences (OC).

classical conditioning (CC)

a type of learning in which one learns to link two or more stimuli and anticipate events

behaviorism

the view that psychology should be an objective science that studies behavior without reference to mental processes.

unconditioned response (UR)

in CC, the unlearned, naturally occuring response to the unconditioned stimulus (US) (ex. salivation when food is in the mouth)

unconditioned stimulus (US)

in CC, a stimulus that unconditionally (naturally and automatically) triggers a response

conditioned response (CR)

the learned response to a previously neutral but not conditioned stimulus.

conditioned stimulus (CS)

in CC, an originally irrelevant stimulus that, after association with an US comes to trigger a CR

acquisition

in CC, the initial stage, when one links a neutral stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus so that the neutral stimulus begins triggering the CR. In operant conditioning, the strengthening on a reinforced response.

higher-order conditioning

a procedure in which the CS in one conditioning experience is paired with a new neutral stimulus, creating a second (often weaker) CS.

extinction

the diminishing of a CR; occurs in CC when a US does not follow a CS; occurs in operant conditioning when a response is no longer reinforced

spontaneous recovery

the reappearance, after a pause, of an extinguished conditioned response

generalization

the tendency, once a response has been conditioned, for stimuli similar to the CS to elicit similar responses

discrimination

in CC, the learned ability to distinguish between a CS and stimuli that does not signal an US

learned helplessness

the hopelessness and passive resignation an animal or human learns when unable to avoid repeated aversive events

respondent behavior

behavior that occurs as an automatic response to some stimulus

operant conditioning (OC)

a type of learning in which behavior is strengthened if followed by a reinforcer or diminished if followed by a punisher

operant behavior

behavior that operates on the environment, producing consequences

law of effect

Thorndike’s principle that behaviors followed by favorable consequences become more likely, and that behaviors followed by unfavorable consequences become less likely

operant chamber

in OC research, a chamber containing a bar or key that an animal can manipulate to obtain a food or water reinforcer; attached devices record the animals rate of bar pressing or key pecking

shaping

an OC procedure in which reinforcers guide behavior toward closer and closer approximations of the desired behavior

discriminative stimulus

in OC, a stimulus elicits a response after association with reinforcement

reinforcer

in OC, any event that strengthens the behavior it follows

positive reinforcement

increasing behaviors by presenting positive stimuli, such as food. A ___ is any stimulus that, when presented after a response, strengthens the response

negative reinforcement

increasing behaviors by stopping or reducing a negative stimuli, such as shock. A ___ is any stimulus that, when removed after a response, strengthens the response

primary reinforcer

an innately reinforcing stimulus such as one that satisfies a biological need

conditioned reinforcer

a stimulus that gains it reinforcing power through its association with a primary reinforcer (AKA secondary reinforcer)

continuous reinforcement

reinforcing the desired response every time it occurs

partial (intermittent) reinforcement

reinforcing a response only part of the time

fixed-ratio schedule

in OC, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after specified number of responses

variable-ratio schedule

in OC, a reinforcement the reinforces a response after an unpredictable number or responses

fixed-interval schedule

in OC, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specific time has elapsed

variable-interval schedule

in OC, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response at unpredictable time intervals

punishment

an event that decreases the behavior that it follows

cognitive map

a mental representation of the layout of one’s environment

latent learning

learning that occurs but is not apparent until there is an incentive to demonstrate it

insight

a sudden and often novel realization of the solution to a problem

intrinsic motivation

a desire to perform a behavior effectively for its own sake

extrinsic motivation

a desire to perform a behavior to receive promised rewards

observational learning

learning by observing others (AKA social learning)

modeling

the process of observing and imitating a specific behavior

mirror neurons

frontal lobes neurons that fire when performing certain actions or when observing another doing so. The brain’s mirroring of another’s action may enable imitation and empathy.

prosocial behavior

positive, constructive, and helpful behavior