Cognitive Approach - IB Psychology

Memory

Memory

• collection of interconnected and interacting systems that have distinguishable functions

• represented by different neural mechanisms

• human memory acts as if it were a single system

• each system process and stores information in different ways

Stages of memory

• three stages memory occur as a sequence

• they are interact and are interdependent

• Encoding —> Storage —> Retrieval

Encoding

• process of converting information into a form that can be sorted and represented in memory

• may be automatic or effortful

• essential for information being stored

• the better encoded, the easier retrieval

• requires selective attention to the material to be encoded

Types of encoding

• visual encoding: is the processing of images

• acoustic encoding: the processing of sound

• semantic encoding: the processing of meaning

Automatic Encoding

• involves encoding information about location in space and time and frequency of experience

Effortful Encoding

• involves attending to information, labelling then associating it with other things in memory or rehearsing it.

Storage

• the retention of information in memory over time

• 3 stages of memory storage:

  • sensory storage

  • short-term storage

  • long-term storage

Retrieval

• the process of locating and recovering stored information from memory so that we are consciously aware of it

  • can be fast or require effort

• involves various elements of cues, moods, schema and subject to errors

Atkinson and Shiffrin Model Assumptions

• Memory consists of several separate locations in which information is
  stored.

• Memory processes are sequential

• Each memory operates in a single, uniform way

Draw Atkinson and Shiffrin Models

Duration

• how long the store is able to hold information

Capacity

• how many units of information it can hold

Sensory Memory Store

• do not process information

• receive sensory information from the environment

• temporary storage system

  • duration is 0.2-4 seconds, occasionally up to 10

  • capacity is unlimited

• if no attention is paid, information is lost

• Stores sensory impressions long enough for each to overlap to ensure that we perceive the external environment as continuous rather than disjointed pieces of information.

short-term memory

• memory system in which information is stored for a relatively short time, unless renewed in some way

  • capacity: 7 plus or minus 2 units

  • duration: 18-20 seconds, occasionally 30 secs unlessed renewed.

• aka working memory

  • consciously use information from SM and LTM

Displacement

• when one unit replaces another when capacity is reached

Decay

• to break down/ fall apart

• AKA to forget

Chunking Information

• increased ability to recall second or third sequence

• groups separate bits of information into larger units or ‘chunks’

• e.g phone numbers

Rehearsal

• the condition for increasing the duration of STM and transferring information to LTM

• the longer you rehearse information, the longer the information stay in the STM, eventually consolidated and enters the long-term memory store

Long-term Memory

• a place for storing large amounts of information for indefinite periods of time

• although the capacity of LTM is potentially unlimited, not all information is easily retrievable

  • it is not storing, but retrieving information that can be problematic

• two main types:

  • Explicit memory

  • Implicit memory

• each type differs in the way that they retrieve and express information

• each has its own neural mechanism and can interact when needed

Explicit memory

• memory with awareness

• Episodic memory

  • personal experiences and events

• Semantic memory

  • facts and knowledge

Implicit memory

• memory without awareness

• Procedural memory

  • motor skills and actions

• Classically conditioned memory

  • conditioned responses to conditioned stimuli

Serial position effect

• refers to the finding that recall accuracy varies as a function of an item’s position within a study list

Recency effect

• items at the end of the list are still present in the STM as they haven’t been processed long enough into LTM

Primary effect

• the initial items in the list are effectively stored in LTM because of greater amounts of attention/processing

Strengths of A&S model

• significant experimental and biological research to support the theory of separate memory stores

• gave psychologists a way to talk about memory, and was also used for further research

Limitations of A&S model

• over-simplified

  • it assumes each of the stores work as an independent unit

• does not explain

  • memory distortion

  • how things may be learned with a minimal amount of rehearsal (trauma)

  • time that we rehearse a lot to remember information and it is not transferred to LTM

Working Memory Model proposes…

• that STM consists of multiple parts rather than a singular unit

• working memory is a mental workspace

• buffer for information

Working model of memory parts

• Central Executive

• Phonological loop

• Visuospatial sketchpad

• Episodic Buffer

Central Executive

• Controls attention and coordinates subsystems of processing and storage.

• Limited capacity, modality-free (processes any sensory info).

• Controls attention through:

  • Automatic level (habits, reflex-like responses).

  • Supervisory attention (planning, decision-making, self-regulation).

Phonological Loop

• Auditory component of STM with two subsystems:

  • Articulatory control system (inner voice): holds info in verbal form.

  • Phonological store (inner ear): holds auditory memory for 1.5-2 seconds.

• Articulatory Suppression: inhibits memory performance when repeating words or numbers while trying to remember

Visuospatial Sketchpad

• Visual component of STM, stores and manipulates visual/spatial information.

• Responsible for visual imagery and spatial memory.

The Episodic Buffer

• Temporarily holds information from various sources (auditory, visual) for processing.

• Integrates info from STM and LTM, involved in conscious awareness.

Strengths of the WMM

• Supported by experimental evidence and brain imaging studies.

• Case studies of brain-damaged patients reinforce the model.

• Explains why we can multi-task in certain situations.

Limitations of the WMM

• Vague role of the CE and unclear interactions between components.

• Only focuses on STM; limited explanation of LTM.

• Does not address memory distortion, emotion's role, or processing of all sensory information.

Glanzer and Cunitz (1966)

Multi-store model of memory

Landry and Bartling (2011)

Working Memory Model

Schema

• A cognitive structure that represents aspects of the world, helping to organize and interpret information based on previous knowledge.

Schema Theory

• A theory related to how we process information based on relevant previous knowledge stored in our memories and organised as schemas

• Schema theory assumes people give meaning to new experiences by fitting them in to mental representations

• In other words, new information is processed in the light of existing schema and Schema theory therefore predicts that what we already know will influence the outcome of information processing

Functions of schema

• Organise our knowledge

• Allows us to recall our knowledge

• Helps us to behave appropriately and inappropriately

• Helps us predict likely outcomes in the environment

• Helps us make sense of the current experiences

Schema Processing

• Top-Down Processing:

• Bottom-Up Processing:

Top-Down Processing:

Uses existing schemas to influence interpretation and understanding of new information.

Bottom-Up Processing:

Builds new schemas from sensory information when existing schemas do not apply.

Types of Schemas:

• scripts

• self-schema

• social schema

Script Schemas

• Sequences of events (e.g., dining out) that guide expectations and reactions.

Self- Schema

• Information about oneself, influencing self-perception and mental health.

Social Schema

Knowledge about groups of people and their typical behaviors.

thinking

• the process of using knowledge and information to make plans, interpret the world and make predictions about the world in general.

• It is often the case that attention is paid to the stimuli around us during the process of thinking.

Components of thinking

• problem-solving

• creativity

• reasoning

• decision making

Decision making

• the process of identifying and choosing alternatives based on the values and preferences of the decision-maker.

• It is required during problem-solving to reach a conclusion.

Problem solving

thinking that is directed toward solving specific problems.

The dual process model

there are two basic modes of thinking, “System 1” and “System 2”

System 1

• an automatic, intuitive and effortless way of thinking.

• often employ heuristics

Heuristics

• mental shortcuts that involve focusing on one aspect of a complex problem and ignoring the others).

• This shortcut allows us to be more efficient but at the same time, we are more prone to making mistakes.

System 2

• slower, conscious and rational mode of thinking, however, it requires
  more effort and often does not employ the use of heuristics. (Rational thinking)

• Starts by thinking carefully about all the possible ways we could interpret a situation and then gradually eliminate the possibilities based on sensory evidence until we arrive at a solution.

• Allows us to analyse the world around us and think carefully about the surroundings

Misinformation effect

• reading questions that are suggestive and post-event information can affect schema processing which may influence the accuracy of recall

Loftus and Palmer 1974

schema/ reconstructive memory

Flashbulb memory theory [Brown and Kulik (1977)]

• Highly detailed, exceptionally vivid snapshots of the moment when a surprising and the emotionally arousing event happened.

Special-mechanism hypothesis

• argues for the existence of special biological memory mechanism, that when triggered by an event exceeding critical levels of surprise, creates a permanent record of the details and circumstances surrounding the experience

• different to normal memories and are more resistant to forgetting

• is supported by modern neuroscience, emotional events are better
  remembered than fewer emotional events because of the role of the amygdala

• emphasized that personal consequences determine the intensity of emotional reactions

Anchoring bias

the tendency to rely too heavily on the first piece of information offered when making decisions

Framing effect

• people react to choices depending on how they were framed

• people prefer information that is framed in positive language

Prospect Theory

• the way people choose between alternatives that involve risk, where the
  possibilities of outcome are unknown.

Confirmation bias

• people are much more attentive to information that can potentially support their expectations, and tend to ignore information that can potentially contradict their expectations

Normative Models:

• Describe how thinking should occur, assuming unlimited time and resources.

• Provide standards for what is considered right or effective, although often unrealistic in real-world scenarios.

Descriptive Models:

• Describe actual thinking and decision-making patterns.

• Focus on accurately reflecting real-life behaviors and how closely models align with observed data.

• Examples include the theory of reasoned action and the theory of planned behavior.