UC Scout AP Psych Semester 1 Key Terms - Final

perceptual set

tendency to perceived some parts of sensory data and ignore others

• influenced by internal/external factors, gestalt principles

internal factors

originate within the individual and affect how they perceive the world

• experiences: shape our expectations and influence how we perceive and interpret new stimuli from our environment

• expectations: what we expect to see or experience can influence what we actually perceive

• motivations and emotions: how we are feeling and what we are motivated by impact our perception

external factors

originate outside the individual and affect how they perceive sensory information

• context: circumstances, setting, surrounding details impact the perception of stimuli

• cultural influences: cultural background and social norms affect perception

• environmental cues: environment impacts how we perceive stimuli in that environment

Gestalt Principles

set of theories that describe how people tend to organize sensory information into unified wholes

• figure-ground relationships

• proximity

• similarity

• continuity

• closure

figure-ground relationships

people automatically separate visual elements into the figure and the ground (main object and background)

proximity:

elements close to each other can be perceived as a group, proximity can create a sense of order and organization

similarity

objects similar in appearance are perceived as belonging together (shape, color, size, etc)

continuity

people perceive continuous lines and patterns, even if they are interrupted

closure

tendency to fill in missing parts of an incomplete shape to see it as a whole

perceptual constancy

we perceive an object as unchanging even as the retinal image changes

• proximal stimulus

• distal stimulus

• size constancy

• shape constancy

• brightness constancy

proximal stimulus

an object as it exists in the retina

distal stimulus

an object as it exists in the world, out in the distance

size constancy

the perceived size of the object remains the same even though its size changes in the retina

shape constancy

shape remains the same as retinal image changes

brightness constancy

when the brightness and color of an object remains the same, even though the retinal image changes

depth perception

understanding how far away an object is, brain registers the accommodation of lenses in the eyes to determine depths, integration of cues from both eyes

convergence

act of the eyes keeping an object in the center of the retinal field to maintain optimal focus

• as the object gets closer, eyes cross

retinal disparity

discrepancy between each eye’s view

linear perspective

parallel lines appear to converge as they get further away and nearer to the horizon

relative size

objects that are smaller will appear further away

location in picture plane

objects closer to the horizon line appear to be more distant

relative height

objects higher in the field of vision are perceived as farther away

light and shadow

can give a 2D picture 3D characteristics

interposition

when an object is in front of another, it is perceived as closer

texture gradient

patterns look denser as they get further away

aerial perspective

smog, fog, dust, haze add to the apparent distance of an object

relative motion

objects close appear to rush by and objects further away appear to move slower

cognition

mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, communication

concepts

mental grouping of similar objects, events, ideas, people

prototypes

mental image of a best example of a category

creativity

ability to produce new and valuable ideas

divergent thinking

ability to generate diverse assortments of solutions

convergent thinking

narrowing down from given choices to one option

analysis

breaking down large concepts into smaller ones

synthesis

combining separate concepts into one big idea

inductive thought

going from specific tasks/observations to general principles similar to experiments

deductive thought

from general principles to specific situations

creative people

• experts in at least one skill

• highly imaginative

• risk-takers

• intrinsically motivated

• surrounded by other people with creativity

algorithms

set formulas

• guarantee a solution

heuristics

mental shortcuts

• more prone to errors

insight

sudden realization of a problem’s solution

• when not given set formulas or mental shortcuts

confirmation bias

tendency to search for information that supports our beliefs and to ignore evidence that does not support it

fixation

inability to see a problem from a fresh perspective that may help solve it

mental set

tendency to view a problem in one set way

functional fixedness

inability to see alternate uses or functions for objects

representativeness heuristics

making a choice based on what seems to be the most correct answer or if it matches the prototype

availability heuristic

estimating the likelihood of an event of making a selection based on the first instance that comes to mind

overconfidence

overinflated sense of abilities

belief perserverance

holding onto beliefs even after being refuted

framing

distracted due to ow the issue/question is presented

hindsight bias

looking back at a situation and thinking you would’ve seen it only after seeing the outcome

memory

continuance of learning over time

• encoding

• storage

• retrieval of thought

encoding

process of taking incoming thoughts and sensations in order for memories to be formed

• failure: memories never become encoded, will not be retained

• NOT a perfect system

storage

process of holding and maintaining information over time

retrieval

process of bringing information out of storage and back into our conscious thought

• parallel processing: processing more than one thinking task at a time

• serial processing: searching for one thing at a time

Three Stores View

Atkinson and Shiffrin (1968(

• sensory register

• short-term store

• long-term store

sensory register

everything you are aware of at any given moment

• iconic memories: visual images for 0.5 to 1 second

• echoic memories: auditory continuations for 3 to 4 seconds

short-term store

stored for a brief period of time (30 seconds) before forgotten

• according to George Miller: the limit is 7 items, ± two

• encoded by sound

• can be improved by rehearsal: repeating over and over

• chunking: putting smaller information into larger groups increases capacity

long-term store

limitless capacity and duration

• encoded semantically: by meaning

• procedural memories

• declarative memories

procedural memories

memories for the performance of actions or skills

• HOW to do something

declarative memories

memories of facts, rules, concepts, events

• semantic: general knowledge concepts, shared with others

• episodic: personal experiences

explicit memories

conscious memories of facts and experiences where we store and try to retrieve it

implicit memories

skills and classically conditioned associations

procedural memories

automatic due to repeated actions

working memory

created by Alan Baddeley: more active than short term memory

• central executive function: helps process incoming auditory and visual-spatial information

hippocampus

stores EXPLICIT memories

• high concentration of acetylcholine: memory, learning, attention

• memories are consolidated when asleep

cerebellum

stores IMPLICIT memories made by classical conditioning

• ex. pavlov’s dog experiment

basal ganglia

helps with motor movement and action selection

• formation of PROCEDURAL memories: how to do a task

amygdala

can initiate a memory in frontal lobes due to stress hormones

• flashbulb memories: emotionally significant events that are retained like a photograph

cerebral cortex

long-term DECLARATIVE memories are stored, for factual information

retrieval

getting back memories

• recall: memory retrieval from the mind alone

• recognition: picking from given choices

serial recall

remembering in order

free recall

remembering in any order

paired-associate recall

tasked with remembering one word when given the word pair

cued recall

given prompts or hints

state-dependent memory

remembering when in the same physical or mental state as during the original learning or experience

• ex. when in a happy mood/mental state: easier to remember moments when previously happy

Henry Molaison

had brain surgery to stop seizures, but had memory side effects

anterograde amnesia

inability to form new memories

retrograde amnesia

inability to retrieve information from one’s past

improper original encoding

encoding failure

• encoding: process of taking an input and transferring it into the brain, flawed process

storage decay

things are lost due to a passage of time

Hermann Ebbinghaus

forgetting was rapid at first, then tapers off

• forgetting curve: most forgetting happens right away

• serial position curve: can be forgotten based on order presented

  • primacy: can remember more info from the beginning

  • recency: tend to remember more from the end of the list

retroactive interference

new learning disrupts the memory of old information

• ex. changing cell phone number but unable to remember the old one

proactive interference

prior learning disrupts the memory for new information

• ex. remembering the old phone number and forgetting the new one

constructive memory (false memory)

building or constructing memories that may not be the way things were

source amnesia

cannot remember the source from which we learned information or when we attribute something to the incorrect source

strategies to improve memory

• reciting out loud

• repetition

• chunking

• spaced study sessions

• minimize interference from TV, music, phone

• getting enough sleep

intelligence

global capacity of the individual to act purposefully, to think rationally and to deal effectively with his environment

Sir Francis Galton

intelligence is the capacity for labor and to deal effectively with his environment

• series of tests: hand squeeze strength, reaction time, sensitivity to pin pricks

Clark Wissler

found no correlation between Galton’s test results and academic success of college students at Columbia and Barnard

Alfred Binet and Theodore Simon, Stanford-Binet Intelligence Test

measured mental age for adults and children

William Stern’s Ratio IQ

took mental age, divided by chronological age, multiplied by 100

Wechsler Adult Intelligence Test (WAIS)

verbal comprehension, pattern design, letter and number sequences, block image assembly

quality control in test design

• validity

• reliability

• standardization

• norms

validity

whether the test measures what it is purported to measure

• content validity: how much you know about a specific subject matter or skill

• predictive validity: measures how well you do in the future

• concurrent validity: if the test measures content required and predictive abilities

• face validity: how the test takers view an exam

reliability

how dependable the measure is

• test-retest reliability: ensuring you get close to the same results if the test is taken again

• alternate-forms reliability: ensures that a different version will yield the same results

• inter-rater reliability: score is the same no matter who grades it

standardization

all test takers are given the same environment, amount of time, materials, instructions

normative score

compares raw score to average score of all test takers

Charles Spearman

general measure of intelligence is not based on how much you have learned or have memorized

• G-Factor: single factor that pervades all thinking abilities

• S-Factor: more specific forms of knowledge

LL Thurstone, Primary Mental Abilities

general intelligence was made up of seven factors

• verbal comprehension

• verbal fluency

• inductive reasoning

• spatial visualization

• numbers

• memory

• perceptual speed