Exam 1 (Chapters 1-4)

Critical Thinking

thinking that does not blindly accept arguments and conclusions. Rather, it examines assumptions, discerns hidden values, evaluates evidence, and assesses conclusions.

Structuralism

an early school of psychology that used introspection to explore the elemental structure of the human mind

Functionalism

early school of thought promoted by James and influenced by Darwin; explored how mental and behavioral processes function- how they enable the organism to adapt, survive, and flourish

Behaviorism

the view that psychology (1) should be an objective science that (2) studies behavior without reference to mental processes. Most research psychologists today agree with (1) but not with (2).

humanistic psychology

historically significant perspective that emphasized the growth potential of healthy people and the individual's potential for personal growth

Cognitive Psychology

the scientific study of mental processes, including perception, thought, memory, and reasoning

cognitive neuroscience

the interdisciplinary study of the brain activity linked with cognition (including perception, thinking, memory, and language)

Psychology

the scientific study of behavior and mental processes

Culture

the enduring behaviors, ideas, attitudes, values, and traditions shared by a group of people and transmitted from one generation to the next

biopsychosocial approach

an integrated approach that incorporates biological, psychological, and social-cultural levels of analysis

nature-nurture issue

the longstanding controversy over the relative contributions that genes and experience make to the development of psychological traits and behaviors. Today's science sees traits and behaviors arising from the interaction of nature and nurture

dual processing

the principle that information is often simultaneously processed on separate conscious and unconscious tracks

counseling psychology

a branch of psychology that assists people with problems in living (often related to school, work, or marriage) and in achieving greater well-being

clinical psychology

a branch of psychology that studies, assesses, and treats people with psychological disorders

psychiatry

a branch of medicine dealing with psychological disorders; practiced by physicians who sometimes provide medical (for example, drug) treatments as well as psychological therapy

community psychology

a branch of psychology that studies how people interact with their social environments and how social institutions affect individuals and groups

positive psychology

the scientific study of optimal human functioning; aims to discover and promote strengths and virtues that enable individuals and communities to thrive

hindsight bias

I knew it all along phenomenon

peer review

A process by which the procedures and results of an experiment are evaluated by other scientists who are in the same field or who are conducting similar research.

Theory

well-tested explanation that unifies a broad range of observations

Hypothesis

A testable prediction, often implied by a theory

operational definition

a statement of the procedures (operations) used to define research variables. For example, human intelligence may be operationally defined as what an intelligence test measures.

Replication

repeating the essence of a research study, usually with different participants in different situations, to see whether the basic finding extends to other participants and circumstances

preregistration

publicly communicating planned study design, hypotheses, data collection, and analyses

case study

a descriptive technique in which one individual or group is studied in depth in the hope of revealing universal principles

naturalistic observation

observing and recording behavior in naturally occurring situations without trying to manipulate and control the situation

Survey

a technique for ascertaining the self-reported attitudes or behaviors of a particular group, usually by questioning a representative, random sample of the group

Population

Those in a group being studied which may have been chosen by random assignment

Correlation

A measure of the extent to which two factors relate to each other

Experiment

A research method in which an investigator manipulates one or more factors to observe the effect on some behavior or mental process

random assignment

assigning participants to experimental and control conditions by chance, thus minimizing preexisting differences between those assigned to the different groups

Experimental group

In an experiment, the group that is exposed to the treatment, that is, to one version of the independent variable.

Control group

In an experiment, the group that is not exposed to the treatment; contrasts with the experimental group and serves as a comparison for evaluating the effect of the treatment.

Placebo

A harmless pill, medicine, or procedure prescribed more for the psychological benefit to the patient than for any physiological effect.

double-blind procedure

an experimental procedure in which both the research participants and the research staff are ignorant (blind) about whether the research participants have received the treatment or a placebo. Commonly used in drug-evaluation studies.

placebo effect

experimental results caused by expectations alone; any effect on behavior caused by the administration of an inert substance or condition, which the recipient assumes is an active agent.

independent variable

The experimental factor that is manipulated; the variable whose effect is being studied.

confounding variable

a factor other than the independent variable that might produce an effect in an experiment

dependent variable

The outcome factor; the variable that may change in response to manipulations of the independent variable.

informed consent

an ethical principle that research participants be told enough to enable them to choose whether they wish to participate

Debriefing

the post-experimental explanation of a study, including its purpose and any deceptions, to its participants

testing effect

Enhanced performance on a memory test caused by being tested on the material to be remembered.

SQR3

a study method incorporating five steps: Survey, Question, Read, Retrieve, Review

Neuroplasticity

the ability within the brain to constantly change both the structure and function of many cells in response to experience or trauma

Neuron

a nerve cell; the basic building block of the nervous system

Cell body

Largest part of a typical neuron; contains the nucleus and much of the cytoplasm

Dendrites

a neuron's bushy, branching extensions that receive messages and conduct impulses toward the cell body

Axon

the extension of a neuron, ending in branching terminal fibers, through which messages pass to other neurons or to muscles or glands

action potential

the change in electrical potential associated with the passage of an impulse along the membrane of a muscle cell or nerve cell.

glial cells (glia)

cells in the nervous system that support, nourish, and protect neurons

Synapse

the junction between the axon tip of the sending neuron and the dendrite or cell body of the receiving neuron

Threshold

Level of stimulation needed to trigger a neural impulse

refractory period

the time following an action potential during which a new action potential cannot be initiated

all-or-none response

a neuron's reaction of either firing (with a full-strength response) or not firing.

Neurotransmitters

chemical messengers that cross the synaptic gaps between neurons that transport information

Reuptake

a neurotransmitter's reabsorption by the sending neuron

Opiate

a narcotic used to cause sleep or bring relief from pain

Endorphins

"morphine within"--natural, opiate-like neurotransmitters linked to pain control and to pleasure.

Nervous system

the body's speedy, electrochemical communication network, consisting of all the nerve cells of the peripheral and central nervous systems

central nervous system

brain and spinal cord

peripheral nervous system

the sensory and motor neurons that connect the central nervous system to the rest of the body

Nerves

bundled axons that form neural "cables" connecting the central nervous system with muscles, glands, and sense organs

Sensory neurons

neurons that carry incoming information from the sensory receptors to the brain and spinal cord

Motor neurons

neurons that carry outgoing information from the brain and spinal cord to the muscles and glands

Interneurons

Central nervous system neurons that internally communicate and intervene between the sensory inputs and motor outputs

somatic nervous system

the division of the peripheral nervous system that controls the body's skeletal muscles

autonomic nervous system

the part of the peripheral nervous system that controls the glands and the muscles of the internal organs (such as the heart). Its sympathetic division arouses; its parasympathetic division calms.

sympathetic nervous system

the division of the autonomic nervous system that arouses the body, mobilizing its energy in stressful situations

parasympathetic nervous system

the division of the autonomic nervous system that calms the body, conserving its energy

Reflex

a simple, automatic response to a sensory stimulus, such as the knee-jerk response

Endocrine

the body's "slow" chemical communication system; a set of glands that secrete hormones into the bloodstream

Hormones

chemical messengers that are manufactured by the endocrine glands, travel through the bloodstream, and affect other tissues

Adrenal

on top of the kidneys; prepares the body for action, controls the heart rate and breathing in times of emergency.

pituitary gland

The endocrine system's most influential gland. Under the influence of the hypothalamus, the pituitary regulates growth and controls other endocrine glands.

EEG (electroencephalogram)

An amplified recording of the waves of electrical activity that sweep across the brain's surface. These waves are measured by electrodes placed on the scalp.

MEG (magnetoencephalography)

a brain imaging technique that measures magnetic fields from the brain's natural electrical activity

PET (positron emission tomography) scan

a visual display of brain activity that detects where a radioactive form of glucose goes while the brain performs a given task

MRI (magnetic resonance imaging)

a technique that uses magnetic fields and radio waves to produce computer-generated images of soft tissue. MRI scans show brain anatomy.

fMRI (functional MRI)

A technique for revealing bloodflow and, therefore, brain activity by comparing successive MRI scans. fMRI scans show brain function.

Hindbrain

medulla, pons, cerebellum

An area of the brain that coordinates information coming into and out of the spinal cord

Midbrain

A small part of the brain above the pons that integrates sensory information and relays it upward.

Forebrain

The largest and most complicated region of the brain, including the thalamus, hypothalamus, limbic system, and cerebrum.

Brainstem

the oldest part and central core of the brain, beginning where the spinal cord swells as it enters the skull; the brainstem is responsible for automatic survival functions

medulla oblongata

Part of the brainstem that controls vital life-sustaining functions such as heartbeat, breathing, blood pressure, and digestion.

Thalamus

the brain's sensory switchboard, located on top of the brainstem; it directs messages to the sensory receiving areas in the cortex and transmits replies to the cerebellum and medulla

reticular formation

a nerve network that travels through the brainstem and thalamus and plays an important role in controlling arousal

Cerebellum

the "little brain" at the rear of the brainstem; functions include processing sensory input and coordinating movement output and balance

limbic system

neural system (including the hippocampus, amygdala, and hypothalamus) located below the cerebral hemispheres; associated with emotions and drives.

Amygdala

A limbic system bi-bean-shaped structure involved in memory and emotion, particularly fear and aggression.

Hypothalamus

A neural structure lying below the thalamus; it directs several maintenance activities (eating, drinking, body temperature), helps govern the endocrine system via the pituitary gland, and is linked to emotion and reward.

Hippocampus

A neural center located in the limbic system that helps process explicit memories for storage.

Cerebral

pertaining to the brain

frontal lobe

A region of the cerebral cortex that has specialized areas for movement, abstract thinking, planning, memory, and judgement

parietal lobe

A region of the cerebral cortex whose functions include processing information about touch. Sensory

Occipital lobe

A region of the cerebral cortex that processes visual information

temporal lobe

A region of the cerebral cortex responsible for hearing and language.

motor cortex

an area at the rear of the frontal lobes that controls voluntary movements

somatosensory cortex

area at the front of the parietal lobes that registers and processes body touch and movement sensations

Haullucination

an experience involving the apparent perception of something not present.

association areas

areas of the cerebral cortex that are not involved in primary motor or sensory functions; rather, they are involved in higher mental functions such as learning, remembering, thinking, and speaking