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Sensation
the process by which our sensory receptors and nervous system receive and represent stimulus energies from our environment
perception
the process of organizing and interpreting sensory information, enabling us to recognize meaningful objects and events
bottom-up processing
analysis that begins with the sensory receptors and works up to the brain's integration of sensory information
top-down processing
information processing guided by higher-level mental processes, as when we construct perceptions drawing on our experience and expectations
Transduction
conversion of one form of energy into another. In sensation, the transforming of stimulus energies, such as sights, sounds, and smells, into neural impulses our brains can interpret.
Psychophysics
the study of relationships between the physical characteristics of stimuli, such as their intensity, and our psychological experience of them
absolute threshold
the minimum stimulation needed to detect a particular stimulus 50 percent of the time. low threshold means you are more sensitive, while high threshold means you are less sensitive
signal detection theory
a theory predicting how and when we detect the presence of a faint stimulus (signal) amid background stimulation (noise). Assumes there is no single absolute threshold and that detection depends partly on a person's experience, expectations, motivation, and alertness.
subliminal
below one's absolute threshold for conscious awareness
Priming
the activation, often unconsciously, of certain associations, thus predisposing one's perception, memory, or response
difference threshold
the minimum difference between two stimuli required for detection 50 percent of the time
Weber's Law
the principle that, to be perceived as different, two stimuli must differ by a constant minimum percentage (rather than a constant amount)
sensory adaptation
diminished sensitivity as a consequence of constant stimulation
perceptual set
a mental predisposition to perceive one thing and not another
Wavelength
the distance from the peak of one light or sound wave to the peak of the next. They can vary from the short blips of cosmic rays to the long pulses of radio transmission
hue
the dimension of color that is determined by the wavelength of light; what we know as the color names blue, green, and so forth
Intensity
the amount of energy in a light or sound wave, which we perceive as brightness or loudness, as determined by the wave's amplitude
pupil
the adjustable opening in the center of the eye through which light enters
Iris
a ring of muscle tissue that forms the colored portion of the eye around the pupil and controls the size of the pupil opening
Lense
the transparent structure behind the pupil that changes shape to help focus images on the retina
Retina
the light-sensitive inner surface of the eye, containing the receptor rods and cones plus layers of neurons that begin the processing of visual information
accommodation
the process by which the eye's lens changes shape to focus near or far objects on the retina
Rods
retinal receptors that detect black, white, and gray; necessary for peripheral and twilight vision, when cones don't respond
Cones
retinal receptor cells that are concentrated near the center of the retina and that function in daylight or in well-lit conditions. They detect fine detail and give rise to color sensations.
optic nerve
it carries neural impulses from the eye to the brain
blind spot
the point at which the optic nerve leaves the eye, creating an area you can’t see because no receptor cells are located there
Fovea
the central focal point in the retina, around which the eye's cones cluster
Young-Helmholtz trichromatic (three-color) theory
the theory that the retina contains three different color receptors—one most sensitive to red, one to green, one to blue—which, when stimulated in combination, can produce the perception of any color.
Hering’s opponent-process theory
the theory that opposing retinal processes (red-green, yellow-blue, white-black) enable color vision. For example, some cells are stimulated by green and inhibited by red; others are stimulated by red and inhibited by green
feature detectors
nerve cells in the brain that respond to specific features of the stimulus, such as shape, angle, or movement
parallel processing
the processing of many aspects of a problem simultaneously; the brain's natural mode of information processing for many functions, including vision.
Gestalt
an organized whole. Gestalt psychologists emphasized our tendency to integrate pieces of information into meaningful wholes.
figure ground
the organization of the visual field into objects (the figures) that stand out from their surroundings (the ground).
grouping
the perceptual tendency to organize stimuli into coherent groups
proximity
nearby figures grouped together
continuity
perceive smooth, continuous patterns than discontinuous ones
closure
fill in gaps to create a complete, whole object
depth perception
the ability to see objects in three dimensions although the images that strike the retina are two-dimensional; allows us to judge distance
visual cliff
a laboratory device for testing depth perception in infants and young animals
binocular cues
depth cues, such as retinal disparity, that depend on the use of two eyes
retinal disparity
a binocular cue for perceiving depth: by comparing images from the retinas in the two eyes, the brain computes distance—the greater the difference between the two images, the closer the object.
monocular cues
depth cues, such as interposition and linear perspective, available to either eye alone
phi phenomenon
an illusion of movement created when two or more adjacent lights blink on and off in quick succession
perceptual constancy
perceiving objects as unchanging (having consistent lightness, color, shape, and size) even as illumination and retinal images change
color constancy
perceiving familiar objects as having consistent color, even if changing illumination alters the wavelengths reflected by the object
shape constancy
perceive the form of familiar objects as constant even while the retina’s changing images of them
size constancy
we perceive objects as having a constant size even when distance to them varies
perceptual adaptation
in vision, the ability to adjust to an artificially displaced or even inverted visual field
audition
the sense or act of hearing
frequency
The number of complete waves that pass a given point in a certain amount of time
pitch
a tone's experienced highness or lowness; high pitch→ short wavelength/high frequency; low pitch→ long wavelength/low frequency
middle ear
the chamber between the eardrum and cochlea containing three tiny bones (hammer, anvil, and stirrup) that concentrate the vibrations of the eardrum on the cochlea oval window
cochlea
a coiled, bony, fluid-filled tube in the inner ear through which sound waves trigger nerve impulses
inner ear
the innermost part of the ear, containing the cochlea, semicircular canals, and vestibular sacs
sensorineural hearing loss
most common form of hearing loss caused by damage to the cochlea's receptor cells or to the auditory nerves; also called nerve deafness
conduction hearing loss
less common form of hearing loss caused by damage to the mechanical system that conducts sound waves to the cochlea
cochlear implant
a device for converting sounds into electrical signals and stimulating the auditory nerve through electrodes threaded into the cochlea
Hermann von Helmholtz’s place theory
in hearing, the theory that links the pitch we hear with the place where the cochlea's membrane is stimulated
frequency theory/temporal theory
in hearing, the theory that the rate of nerve impulses traveling up the auditory nerve matches the frequency of a tone, thus enabling us to sense its pitch
volley principle
neural cells can alternate firing to achieve a combined frequency >1000 waves per second, which is something an individual neural cell can’t do
sense of touch
Combination of spots sensitive to pressure, warmth, cold, and pain
nociceptors
pain receptors
gate-control theory
the theory that the spinal cord contains a neurological "gate" that blocks pain signals or allows them to pass on to the brain. The "gate" is opened by the activity of pain signals traveling up small nerve fibers and is closed by activity in larger fibers or by information coming from the brain.
Bio influences on pain
activity in spinal cord’s large and small fibers; genetic diffs in endorphin production; the brain’s interpretation of CNS activity
Psychological influences on pain
attention to pain; learning based on experience; expectations
Social-cultural influences on pain
presence of others; empathy for others’ pain; cultural expectations
hypnosis
a social interaction in which one person suggests to another that certain perceptions, feelings, thoughts, or behaviors will spontaneously occur
dissociation
a split in consciousness, which allows some thoughts and behaviors to occur simultaneously with others
posthypnotic suggestion
a suggestion, made during a hypnosis session, to be carried out after the subject is no longer hypnotized; used by some clinicians to help control undesired symptoms and behaviors
kinesthesia
Body position. The system for sensing the position and movement of individual body parts. Any change in the position of a body part, interacting with vision; kinesthetic sensors in joints, tendons, and muscles
vestibular sense
Body movement. The sense of body movement and position, including the sense of balance. Because of the hair-like receptors in the semicircular canals and vestibular sacs.
sensory interaction
the principle that one sense may influence another, as when the smell of food influences its taste
embodied cognition
in psychological science, the influence of bodily sensations, gestures, and other states on cognitive preferences and judgments
Biological influences on our version of reality
sensory analysis; unlearned visual phenomena; critical for sensory development
Psychological influences on our version of reality
selective attention; learned schemas; gestalt principles; context effects; perceptual set
Socio-cultural influences on our version of reality
cultural assumptions and expectations
vision
rods and cones in the retina
hearing
cochlear hair cells in the inner ear
touch
skin receptors detect pressure, warmth, cold, and pain
taste
basic tongue receptors for sweet, sour, salty, bitter, and umami
smell
millions of receptors at top of nasal cavity