AP Psych Modules 7 & 8

isd online learning 26

Broca’s area

frontal lobe area, usually in the left hemisphere, that helps control language expression by directing the muscle movements involved in speech

grammar

in a language, a set of rules that enables communication and understanding between people

semantics

language’s set of rules for deriving meaning from sounds

syntax

set of rules for combining words into grammatically sensible sentences

language

agreed-upon systems of spoken, written, or sined words, and the ways people combine them to communicate meaning

babbling stage

stage in speech development, beginning around 4 months, during which and infant spontaneously utters various sounds that are not at all related to the household language

aphasia

impairment of language, usually caused by left hemisphere damage to either Broca’s area (impairing speaking) or to Wernicke’s area (impairing speech understanding)

morpheme

smallest unit that carries meaning, may be word/part of word (prefix/suffix)

phoneme

smallest distinctive sound unit

universal grammar

humans’ innate predisposition to understand the principles and rules that govern grammar in all languages

Wernike’s area

brain area usually in the left temporal lobe, involved in language comprehension and expression

linguistic relativism

idea that language influences the way humans think

linguistic determinism

Whorf’s hypothesis that language determines the way humans think

telegraphic speech

early speech stage in which a child speaks or signs mostly in single words

one-word stage

stage in speech development from about 1 to 2 years, during which a child speaks or signs mostly in single words

two-word stage

stage in speech development, beginning about age 2, during which a child speaks in mostly in two-word sentence

graphemes

smallest units of written sound (letter)

Noam Chomsky

stated that universal grammar = receptive and expressive language

cooing

pre-language stage from 0-6 weeks, where babies make sounds like gurgling and producing vowel sounds, as they test out their vocal cords

linguistic influence

language does make a difference but doesn’t necessarily control thoughts

learning

ability to adapt to the environment either by anticipating events, making direct connections an outcome, or observing others

stimulus

any event or situation that evokes a response

respondent behavior

behavior that occurs as an automatic response to some stimulus

unconditioned response

unlearned, naturally occurring response to an unconditioned stimulus

generalization

tendency, once a stimulus has been conditioned, for stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus to elicit similar responses

extinction

diminishing of a conditioned response when an unconditioned stimulus does not follow a conditioned stimulus

conditioned response

a learned response to a previously neutral stimulus

classical conditioning

a type of learning in which two or more stimuli are linked, to illustrate with Pavlov’s classic experiment, the first stimulus comes to elicit behavior in anticipation of the second stimulus

associative learning

learning that two events occur together

aquisition

the initial stage when one links a neutral stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus so that the neutral stimulus begins triggering the conditioned response

neutral stimulus

stimulus that elicits no response before conditioning

conditioned stimulus

stimulus that unconditionally-naturally or automatically triggers an unconditioned stimulus

habituation

decreasing responsiveness with repeated stimulation

high-order (second-order) conditioning

procedure in which the conditioned stimulus in one conditioning experience is paired with a new neutral stimulus, creating a second (often weaker) conditioned stimulus

behaviorism

view that psychology should be an objective science that studies behavior without reference to mental processes

conditioned stimulus

originally neutral stimulus that, after association with an unconditioned stimulus, comes to trigger a conditioned response

cognitive learning

aquisition of mental information, whether by observing events, watching others, or through language

operant behavior

behavior that operates on the environment, producing a consequence

discrimination

learned ability to distinguish between a conditioned stimulus and other stimuli that have not been associated with a conditioned stimulus

one-trail conditioning

conditioning in which the single pairing of stimulus and response is enough to create an association

preparedness

biological predisposition to learn associations, such as between taste and nausea, that have survival value

taste-aversian response

response in which if sickened after sampling a new food, people later avoid it

Pavlovian principles

helped psychologists deconstruct complex behaviors and provide productive solutions for studying and understanding human behavior

classical conditioning

involves association between stimulus and involuntary reponses

operant conditioning

involves association between stimulus and voluntary response

reinforcement

in operant conditioning, any event that strengthens the behavior it follows

partial (intermittent) reinforcement schedule

reinforcing a response only part of the time, results in slower acquisition of a response but much greater resistance to extinction than does continuous reinforcement

negative reinforcement

increasing behaviors by stopping or reducing an aversive stimulus, any stimulus that when removed after a response strengthens the reinforcement, not punishment

discriminative stimulus

in operant conditioning, a stimulus that elicits a response after association with reinforcement

fixed-interval schedule

in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified time has elapsed

punishment

event that tends to decrease the behavior that it follows

continuous reinforcement schedule

reinforcing the desired response every time it occurs

positive reinforcement

increasing behaviors by presenting a pleasurable stimulus, stimulus that when presented after a response, strengthens the response

operant chamber

in operant conditioning research, a chamber with a bar or key that an animal can manipulate to obtain a food or water reinforcer, attached devices record the animal’s rate of bar pressing or key pecking

law of effect

Thorndike’s principle that behaviors followed by favorable (reinforcing) consequences become more likely and behaviors followed by unfavorable (punishing) consequences become less likely

fixed-ratio schedule

reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified number of responses

shaping

an operant conditioning procedure where reinforcers guide behavior toward closer and closer approximations of the desired behavior

variable-interval schedule

in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response at unpredictable time intervals

primary reinforcer

innately reinforces stimulus, such as one that satisfies a biological need

conditioned reinforcer

stimulus that gains its reinforcing power through its association with a primary reinforcer

variable-ratio schedule

in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response after an unpredictable number of responses

conditioned reinforcer

stimulus that gains its reinforcing power through its association with a primary reinforcer, aka a secondary reinforcer

operant conditioning

type of learning where behavior is shaped by rewards and punishments

instinctive drift

tendency of learned behavior to gradually revert to biologically predisposed patterns

naturally adaptive behavior

people and animals most readily learn behaviors that support their biological predisposition

behavior unassociated with survival

other behaviors not associated with food cannot be shaped by food as a reinforcer

antisocial behavior

negative, destructive, harmful behavior

observational learning

learning by observing others, aka social learning

modeling

process of observing and imitating a specific behavior

mirror neuron

frontal lobe neurons that scientists believe fire when w perform certain actions or observe another person doing so, may enable empathy

latent learning

learning that occurs but is not apparent until there is an incentive to demonstrate it

insight learning

solving problems through sudden insight, contrasts with strategy-based solutions

associative learning

learning by making an association between two stimuli

prosocial behavior

positive, constructive, helpful behavior

cognitive map

mental layout of one’s environment

person perception

process by which individuals form impressions and make judgements about others based on their behavior, appearance and other observable characteristics

social psychology

branch of psychology that studies how individuals think, feel, and behave in social contexts

other-race effect

cognitive phenomenon where individuals have difficulty recognizing and distinguishing faces of people from races other than their own

stereotype

widely held, oversimplified, and generalized belief or assumption about a group of people

fundamental attribution error

cognitive bias where people tend to overemphasize internal, personal characteristics when explaining other people’s behavior while underestimating the influence of external, situatuational factors

scapegoat theory

social psychological concept that suggest people often blame individuals for problems or negative outcomes as a way of deflecting attention from the real causes or their own shortcomings

attribution theory

psychological frameowrk that explores how individuals explain the causes of their own and others’ behavior, focuses on how people make inferences about the reasons behind actions and events

prejudice

preconceived opinion or judgement about an individual or group that is based on stereotypes

actor-observer bias

cognitive bias where people tend to attribute their own behavior to internal, dispositional factors, reflects a discrepancy in how individuals perceive their own actions compared to the actions of others

just-world phenomenon

cognitive bias that the world is fundamentally fair and that people get what they deserve

discrimination

unfair or unjust treatment of individuals or groups based on characteristics and personal attributes

internal (dispositional) attributes

assigning the cause of behavior to personal traits, characteristics, or intentions

external (situational) attributes

assign the cause of behavior to external circumstances or situational factors

self-serving bias

when individuals attribute their successes to internal factors and their failures to external factors to maintain self-esteem

social comparison

process by which individuals evaluate their own abilities, performance, and characteristics by comparing themselves to others

explicit prejudice

conscious and deliberate bias

implicit prejudice

unconscious and automatic bias

in-group bias

favor their own group over the out-group, providing more support and positive judgement for members of their own group while displaying prejudice and allocating fewer resources to the out-group

ethnocentrism

using one’s culture as the standard to compare other cultures

attitude

evaluations, feelings, and predispositions toward various people, objects, or ideas

persuasion

process of changing or influencing a person’s attitudes, beliefs, or behaviors through communication and reasoning

peripheral route persuasion

process of influencing attitudes through superficial or secondary cues rather than the content of the message itself

cognitive dissonance theory

theory that describes the mental discomfort or tension that individuals experience when they hold two or more contradictory beliefs, attitudes, or values simultaneously, or when their behavior conflicts with their beliefs or values

role

set of expectations, norms, and behaviors associated with a particular social position or status

central route resuasion

method of influencing attitudes that involves thoughtful and deliberate consideration of the arguments and factual information presented in a message, leads to more enduring changes in attitudes