HS2800 TERM 2 CLASS 2

Epistemology (definition)

The branch of philosophy that asks: How do we know what we know, and what counts as "valid" knowledge?

Ontology (definition)

Beliefs about what reality is like (e.g., one objective reality vs multiple subjective realities).

Axiology (definition)

The study of values and how values/bias shape research.

Ontology: Realism (typical in quantitative)

Assumes one stable, objective reality exists and can be understood through objective observation.

Ontology: Relativism (common in qualitative)

Assumes multiple realities; meanings are subjective and shaped by beliefs, perceptions, feelings, and context.

Epistemology: quantitative stance

Researcher is independent from participants; aims to control bias to make objective measurements.

Epistemology: qualitative stance

Researcher and participants are interdependent; knowledge is co-created through interaction while exploring subjective topics.

Why theory matters (big idea)

All research is framed by theory (even if not stated); theory shapes what questions are "allowed" and what counts as a credible answer.

Why theory matters (validity + generalisability)

Theory helps place your study in a broader field so findings can be argued as valid and connected to wider patterns.

Why theory matters (self-awareness)

Researchers need to recognize their own assumptions and relevant theories that help make sense of what's happening.

Different starting points → different research

Two researchers can study the same topic but ask totally different questions depending on their epistemology/ontology.

Continuum idea

Positivism ↔ Constructivism is often treated as a continuum (many studies sit somewhere in between).

Paradigm (simple definition)

A "worldview" that guides how knowledge is produced (assumptions + what counts as evidence + how to interpret it).

Positivism/Realism (what it is)

A paradigm from natural sciences: assumes a stable reality "out there," knowable through logical, value-free inquiry.

Positivism: Tenet 1 (Empiricism)

Study only observable phenomena.

Positivism: Tenet 2 (Unity of method)

All sciences should share similar methods (aiming to establish cause/effect and laws).

Positivism: Tenet 3 (Value-free)

Science is separate from society; objective, rational, neutral; not about emotion/politics.

Positivism (typical methods)

Often quantitative experimental designs.

Interpretivism (what it is)

A paradigm focused on understanding meaning and lived experience from participants' perspectives; reality is subjective and context-based.

Interpretivism (typical methodology)

Phenomenology is a classic interpretive approach.

Interpretivist study (what makes it "interpretive")

Uses narratives/subjective accounts to interpret deeper meanings, not just describe or measure.

Constructivism / Social constructionism (what it is)

Knowledge and "reality" are shaped through social interaction, language, history, culture, and politics; categories aren't automatically "natural."

Constructionism (what it asks)

How do categories get made? Who has power to label/classify? What are the effects of these classifications?

Constructionism (examples)

How we understand "disease," "the body," "stigma," "deserving vs non-deserving" patients is shaped by social processes.

Critiques of constructionism (key issue)

If everything is "constructed," how do we claim knowledge? Extreme versions can feel unhelpful in contexts like pain, distress, death.

Critical approaches (what they are)

Reject "value-free" research; focus on power, inequality, and how knowledge becomes accepted; often aims for change.

Critical realism (within critical approaches)

Accepts there is a real world (e.g., disease, social processes) but emphasizes how power shapes experience/knowledge.

Critical approaches (what they focus on)

How social structures (class, medical authority, racism, sexism, institutions) are reproduced over time.

Critical approaches (common methods)

Critical ethnography, participatory/empowerment-oriented methods, critical discourse analysis.

What makes a study "critical" (clues)

Explicitly interrogates power relations + structural inequities + aims to transform/empower, not just describe.

Post-positivism (what it is)

Still tests theories empirically but admits human behaviour is complex/unpredictable; reality exists but can only be imperfectly known.

Post-positivism (why "bridge paradigm")

Keeps some positivist rigor (structured measurement) but uses interpretive/critical insights to handle uncertainty and context.

Post-positivism (common design clue)

Mixed-methods/triangulation (often, not always) to combine quantitative signals + qualitative explanations.

Non-examinable FYI paradigms (from slides)

Feminist approaches; decolonising/anti-racist epistemologies; post-human/post-materialist; Indigenous paradigms (covered later).

How paradigms change questions (example: infertility)

Interpretive: "How do people experience infertility?" Constructionist: "How are fertility/infertility categories produced and by whom?"

Research design (definition)

The logic of the study: the what, how, and why of data production (type of study + methods to produce data).

Design should match question

Qualitative researchers choose designs based on the kind of data needed to answer the research question.

Pragmatic influences on design

Politics, funding, time, resources, feasibility (bias, private behaviour, positionality). Real designs are often iterative and opportunistic.

Qualitative descriptive design (purpose)

Provide clear, straightforward description of events/experiences (describe more than explain); answers who/what/where/how.

Descriptive design (when used)

Good for poorly understood areas; useful for interventions, policy development, and mixed-methods groundwork.

Descriptive design (common data collection)

Often semi-structured interviews (but can use multiple sources).

Descriptive design (analysis)

Often content analysis; less interpretation than other designs.

Descriptive design (advantages)

Straightforward, time-efficient, cost-effective, stays close to raw data; good for exploratory + mixed methods.

Descriptive design (disadvantages)

Less theoretical depth; can be seen as less "rigorous" if not well-executed.

Descriptive design (practical considerations)

Recruit participants who can give relevant detail; careful transcription + secure data storage; informed consent + confidentiality; good when timelines/budgets are limited.

Phenomenology (focus)

Study lived experience and the meanings people assign to it (what was experienced + how it was experienced).

Phenomenology (typical data collection)

In-depth interviews.

Phenomenology (analysis)

Thematic + interpretive analysis to capture deeper meaning.

Phenomenology: bracketing (what it means)

Actively setting aside the researcher's assumptions/biases to better capture participants' experiences.

Phenomenology (advantages)

Rich, authentic, humanistic accounts; good for complex, nuanced phenomena.

Phenomenology (disadvantages)

Subjective findings; limited generalisability; requires strong interpretive skill + reflexivity; emotional sensitivity may be high.

Phenomenology (practical considerations)

Recruit people with direct lived experience; manage emotional risk; strong consent/confidentiality; meticulous transcription/storage; reflexivity + bracketing.

Case study (focus)

In-depth study of a bounded case in real-life context to understand complex phenomena; often asks how/why.

Case study (what counts as a "case")

A person, program, organization, group, or process with clear boundaries.

Case study (data collection)

Multiple sources (interviews, observation, documents) to triangulate.

Case study (analysis options)

Thematic, content, framework, comparative (varies).

Types of case studies

Discovery-led (describe/explore/compare) vs theory-led (explain causes/processes using theory); single vs collective (multiple cases).

Case study (advantages)

Deep contextual understanding; triangulation strengthens claims; flexible for complexity.

Case study (disadvantages)

Time/resource intensive; boundary-setting + access can be difficult; limited generalisability.

Case study (practical considerations)

Define boundaries early (who/what + phenomenon of interest); negotiate access; manage confidentiality + observer bias.

Ethnography (origin + focus)

From anthropology; studies lived culture of groups (norms, expectations, worldviews) and how members make meaning.

Ethnography (culture definition)

Group norms/expectations that shape communication and how people work together.

Ethnography (main methods)

Participant observation + field notes; often interviews; immersive fieldwork.

Ethnography: key terms

Fieldwork/field notes; participant observation; thick description; holism.

Thick description (definition)

Detailed observational notes with language/behaviour/social action + later linking to theory for meaning.

Holism (definition)

Considering many interconnected parts of culture (institutions, family, politics, beliefs, etc.).

Ethnography (advantages)

Deep cultural insight; holistic context; flexible/adaptive in real settings.

Ethnography (challenges)

Long time + resources; complex ethics (role, consent, privacy); access and gatekeepers; deciding what to disclose; exit strategy.

Ethnography (practical considerations)

Prolonged engagement; gatekeeper management; ethical transparency; careful data management; reflexivity (balance insider/outsider perspectives).

Grounded theory (core goal)

Develop theory "from the ground up" by studying social processes/interactions through iterative data collection and analysis.

Grounded theory (what it produces)

Usually mid-range theory, frameworks, typologies (not usually "grand theory").

Grounded theory (iterative process)

Collect data → analyze → refine concepts → collect more (theoretical sampling) → repeat until saturation.

Theoretical sampling (GT meaning)

Sampling guided by the emerging theory to fill gaps and refine concepts.

Theoretical saturation (GT meaning)

Point where additional data no longer adds new insights to categories/concepts.

Grounded theory (analysis features)

Constant comparison; iterative coding cycles (open, axial, selective coding).

Grounded theory (advantages)

Systematic approach; generates theory grounded in data; adaptable across contexts.

Grounded theory (disadvantages)

Time/resource intensive; can become complex; risk of losing contextual richness if overly abstract.

Action research (core idea)

Collaborative research + problem-solving where community/stakeholders become partners (often co-researchers).

Action research (what participants do)

Help identify/prioritize the problem, design data collection, analyze/interpret findings, and share results.

Action research (purpose)

"Living knowledge" tied to real change; emphasizes participation, empowerment, and capacity building.

Action research (advantages)

Empowers stakeholders; builds capacity; iterative improvement based on feedback; practical impact.

Action research (disadvantages)

Time/resource heavy; ethics + rigor can be challenging in dynamic settings; power dynamics are hard to manage; sustainability after the study can be difficult.

Linking paradigms ↔ designs (common pairings)

Descriptive: often post-positivist/pragmatic; Phenomenology: interpretivist (sometimes constructivist); Case study: interpretivist/constructivist (can be post-positivist if theory-testing); Ethnography: interpretivist or critical (critical ethnography); Grounded theory: constructivist (Charmaz) or post-positivist (original Glaser/Strauss); Action research: critical or pragmatic/post-positivist depending on goals.

Exam housekeeping: menti wording

Use menti as a learning support tool, but don't assume the exam will copy exact menti wording—focus on the concepts/definitions and being able to apply them.

Exam housekeeping: "stats from abstracts?"

Usually you're expected to understand the point of the abstract (aim, design, methods, paradigm fit, contribution), not memorize specific numeric statistics—unless your instructor explicitly said stats are testable.