Bio 0150 study guide

Cell Theory

All cells are made of cells.

What was the theory before cell theory

spontaneous interaction

What elements make up 98% of matter

Hydrogen, Carbon, Nitrogen, oxygen, phosphorous, sulfur

covalent bond

electron sharing

Ionic Bond

electron transfer

Electronegativity

the measure of how electrons move towards atoms in compound

polar covalent bond

sharing the electrons unequally based on electronegativity

hydroxyl group

OH-, polar, helps form hydrogen bonds and condensation reactions

Aldehydes

H-C\=O, polar, C\=O is very reactive

Ketones

C\=O, important for carbohydrates, polar

carboxyl group

OH-C\=O, charged and acidic, important for condensation reactions, polar

Amino

NH2, charged and basic, important in condensation reactions

Phosphate

PO4, charged and acidic, important and hydrolysis

Sulfhydryl

SH, non polar

Methyl

CH3, non-polar

Hydrogen bonds

electron attraction between a covalently bonded H atom and electronegative atom

hydrophobic interactions

non-polar in the presence of polar substances

Van der Waals interactions

Interactions of electrons in a non-polar environment

Water Structure

Bent, polar covalent bonds, polar

Water forms what with itself

hyrdogen bonds, up to 4 of them

What are characteristic of water

Universal solvent, cohesion, higher density in liquid then solid, high specific heat, high vaporization temperature

Can water be a proton acceptor and donor in reactions

Yes

ph formula

pH\=-log[H+]

carbohydrates must have:

carboxyl, carbonyl, hydroxyl

What are carbohydrates used for

energy storag, structure, cell identification

Aldose

Carbonyl group is at the end of the carbon chain

Ketose

carbonyl group is in the middle of the carbon chain

difference between glucose and galactose

both six carbon aldoses. glucose has hydroxyl group on the bottom while galactose has it on the top. This results in galactose having a higher melting point

Carbohydrates usually form what structure

ringed if it has five carbons or more

What is the linkage between disacchariddes called

glycosidic linkage between the two carbons and an oxygen

Differences between a and B monomers

A has the OH on the bottom while B has it on the top

What are lipids

hydrophobic, carbon containing molecules

What are the different types of lipids and there function

Fats and oils: energy storage

Fatty acids

hydrocarbon chains with carboxyl (-COOH) on the end

Saturated Fats

stiff solid hydrocarbon tails C-C at room temperature

unsaturated fats

Liquid at room temperature with cis- double bonds that connect C\=C

what makes a lipid solid or liquid at room temperature

more carbon and no double bonds is the most solid and vice versa for most liquid

Trans fats vs Cis fats

both have a double bonds carbon atoms but trans fats doesn't have the kinks which makes cis fats less stiff

How do fats form

condensation reactions (loss of H2O) between hydroxyl groups of glycerol and carboxyl groups of a fatty acid

Phospholipids are?

amphipathic: a hydrophobic side (the saturated/unsaturated tails) and a hydrophillic side (the head)

Phospholipid heads consist of

Phophate groups (negative charge), glycerol, and another charged functional groups (positive)

Protein functions

catalysis, defenses, movement, signalling, structure, transport

What are proteins made out of

amino acids and carboxyl groups

How are proteins formed?

through polymerization in condensation reactions. Peptide likage forms between the carbon and nitrogen (C-N)

Four levels of protein structure

primary, secondary, tertiary, quaternary

primary structure of protein

polypeptide chains, stabilized by peptide bonds

secondary structure of protein

the chains make either an a-helix or B-pleated sheets through hydrogen bonds

tertiary structure of protein

the chains fold, held together by hydrogen bods, dissulfide bridges, and hydrophobic interactions

quaternary structure

Results from two or more polypeptide subunits. tertiary interactions + ionic interactions. Happens through the folding of R-groups

What is a disulfide bond

bonds formed from two cysteine side chains losing there H from the SH

What determines protein structure

its function and amino acid sequence

Structue of proteins

hydrophobic inside and hydrophillic outside

How do the exposed R-groups facilitate interactions between other molecules

Ionic interactions occur between charged R-groups, hydrophobic interactions happen between non-polar R-groups, hydrogen bonds occur between polar groups

How do proteins change shape

They bind to another molecule

What are nucleic acids?

Formed from nitrogenous + ribose or deoxyribose+ phosphate group

Where do the nucleotides connect to each other?

phosphate groups and sugars. They create condensation reactions that results in phophodiester linkages

Difference between ribose and deoxyribose

either OH (ribose) or H (deoxyribose) on the 2nd carbon

What are purines and pyrimidines?

Purines: nine carbon and nitrogen rings (Adenine and Guanine)

How are DNA and RNA written

from 5' to 3'

Erwin Chargaff's Rule

A\=T and G\=C

Components of DNA

Double helix, hydrophobic sugar backbone, nitrogenous base pairs that face the interior. Hydrophobic interactions and van der waals interactions stabalize the interior

RNA structure

sugar backbone, single strand that folds over to make the nitrogenous bases antiparallel, structure goes up to tertiary level

mRNA

sythesized from a DNA template and carries genetic information to the ribosomes

Genes

contains information for all proteins in an organism, not just enzymes

The Central Dogma

DNA-transcription-RNA-translation-protein

What is transcription?

The process of making RNA from DNA using mRNA to copy the information

What is translation?

the decoding of an mRNA message into a protein

What is the start codon?

AUG (methionine)

What is a stop codon?

UAA, UAG, UGA

What is the template for transcription

3' to 5' prime DNA strand

What is a virus?

obligate intracellular parasite

What is the virus structure

genetic material: DNA or RNA, protein coat called a capside that surrounds and protects the genome, some have an envolope around the capsid

Whats the difference between plus ssRNA strand and negative ssRNA strand

the plus strand can be used directly as mRNA, while the negative strand must use genome as a template for mRNA

What is the lystic cycle?

immediate, kills the host cell

What is the lysogenic cycle?

dormant, allows virus to coexist and replicate when the cell divides

What are proteases?

cuts long polypeptide viruses into functional virus proteins

What are retroviruses?

RNA viruses where the RNA is transcribed into DNA by a viral enzyme called reverse transcriptase

How does reverse transcriptase work?

RNA -\> DNA usually virus/retroviruses

Cell surface area to volume ratio

As a cell's size increases, its volume increases much more rapidly than its surface area

what is the most powerfull microscope

electron, more specifically freeze-fracture electron microscope

What do all cells have?

DNA, proteins, cell membrane,

what are ribosomes

complexes of RNA and protein that synthesize proteins

What are prokaryotes?

without membrane bound organelles, circular chromosomes, cell wall made of pepdoglycan (bacteria).

What is a peptoglycan?

carbohydrate chains made by short peptides

gram positive vs gram negative bacteria

gram positive (purple) has a cell wall with a thick peptoglycan layer with no outer bilayer. Gram negative (pink) has a cell wall with thin peptoglycan layer and outer phospholipid bilayer.

difference between autotrophs and hetertrophs

sythesize organic molecules from CO2. Hetertrophs get energy from carbon in there environments

Germ Theory of Disease

certain diseases are infectious, transmission and growth of bacteria, pathogenic

Characteristics of Eukaryotes

membrande bound organelles, membrane nucleus with two lipid bilayer with nuclear pores

What gets through the nuclear envolope

water, ATP, and ions (all small), bigger molecules need transport proteins

Nuclear protein synthesis

ribosomes in the cytosol, the specifci amino acid sequence gets allows access to the nucleus. Called NLS.

Protein sythesis

Proteins and RNa exit the nuclear envolope to the RER. This happens due to SRP code. In the RER, it gets folded and synthesized. SER can modify proteins for shipment to golgi. Glycosylation tags proteins for delivery to other parts of the cell. Shipments to the golgi happen in vesicles. Golgi chemically modifies them and ships through vesicles to the correct part of the cell, most likely the cell membrane.

What are lysosomes?

digestive enzymes that breaks down macromolecules by hydrolyzing them.

Autphagy

damaged organells are surrounded and digested by lysosomes

What are the different cytoskeleton proteins

Microfila:made of actin, used for structure and movement when actin combines to myosin

Adjacent plant cells connect by

plamodesmata which are membrane lined channels

What is the extracellular matrix?

composed of proteins for cell connection and also used as a receptor for cell functions

Factors that influence bilayer behavior

dohble bonds, length of tails, cholesterol, temp

What molecules get through selective permeability

small, non-polar molecules. large , charged molecules need membrane protein channels and pumps

Integral proteins

hydrophobic, interior of membrane

Peripheral proteins

bind to the outside of the membrane through non-covalent interactions, often attached to the integral proteins