Studied by 21 peopleWhat diffusion do single-cell eukaryotes and simple multicellular organisms acquire oxygen through?
Define this term.
simple diffusion
a process in which a substance moves through a semipermeable membrane without any help from transport proteins
What is ventilation?
What zone is it a part of?
movement of air into and out of lungs
conduction zone
What is respiration?
What zone is it a part of?
gas exchange between lungs & blood + blood & tissues
respiratory zone
pH is regulated by the conversion of:
CO2 into carbonic acid into bicarbonate and H+ ions
pH is the measure of ______ _____ concentration in a solution
hydrogen ion
More CO2 leads to more carbonic acid and leads to produce more ___ ions decreasing the _____.
This causes the substance to be more ______.
H+
pH
acidic
What is alkaline?
What is acidic?
What is neutral?
Alkaline solutions have a pH greater than 7 with more hydroxide ions than hydrogen ions
Acidic solutions have a pH less than 7 and have more hydrogen ions
Neutral solutions have a pH of 7 and a balance of hydrogen/hydroxide ions
What is hyperventilation?
What does it cause?
too much breathing / higher O2 than CO2 levels
alkalization of blood aka respiratory alkalosis
What is hypoventilation?
What does it cause?
too little breathing / higher CO2 levels than O2
acidification of blood aka respiratory acidosis
The respiratory system regulates pH immediately adjusting CO2 in ________.
ventilation
What organ regulates pH over several hours to days?
How does it do so?
Kidneys
They control bicarbonate and hydrogen ions in blood by excretion or retention of ions through urine production
Breathing results in heat loss. How does this occur and what is the term called?
Thermoregulation
Occurs through sweating — liquid water absorbs heat when in water vapor
Breathing through mouth as panting during exercise to increase heat loss
The respiratory system also protects from diseases. How does it do this? Explain.
Mucociliary escalator: defense mechanism with layer of mucus and cilia that moves mucus with trapped particles upwards throat to be expelled
What is the pathway of air?
Nose
Nasal cavity
Pharynx
Larynx
Trachea
Bronchi
Terminal bronchioles
Respiratory bronchioles
Alveolar ducts
Alveoli
What is the pharynx?
throat area, separated for air and food
What is the larynx?
has epiglottis
2 vocal cords
made of skeletal muscle/cartilage
What happens to the epiglottis when you swallow?
it closes to prevent food and liquid from entering your lungs
What is the trachea?
rings of cartilage to prevent collapse
The trachea is split into two _______. One for each lung
bronchi
What cells line the trachea and bronchi?
cilitated epithelial cells
Bronchi split into _______ that are made of _____ muscle to help ____________
bronchioles
smooth
adjust air flow
Why is smooth muscle beneficial to bronchioles and trachea?
it allows for voluntary and involuntary contractions
The conduction zone begins at the ______ and ends at the ______
nose
terminal bronchioles
Terminal bronchioles are the smallest branches where no ___ ___ occurs
gas exchange
The conduction zone of the lungs is strictly for
air ventilation, not gas exchange
State the anatomy that is part of the conduction zone
State the anatomy that is part of the respiratory zone
conduction: trachea, bronchi, bronchioles, terminal bronchioles
respiratory: respiratory bronchioles, alveolar ducts, alveolar sacs
What are alveoli ducts?
lead to alveoli and made of them
branches into respiratory bronchiole
What are alveoli?
tiny sacs with thin walls
in charge of gas exchange with blood
one cell thin except where capillaries are
epithelial cells are _____ _____ cells that serve as a pathway for air. they are too thick for _______ _______
tall columnar
gas exchange
What are goblet cells?
specialized cells that secrete sticky mucus to trap pathogens and particles
located in the epithelial cells of the digestive and respiratory tract in the stomach, small intestine, trachea bronchi and larger bronchioles and are glandular simple columnar cells.
What does the upper tract have to remove pathogens? How does it do this?
cilia that sweeps mucus through swallowing and coughing aka the mucociliary escalator
What is pneumonia? What are the symptoms?
bacterial/viral infection of lungs that cause damage to epithelial cell lining of lungs and paralyzes the cilia
causes coughing and inability to clear lungs
Oxygen (O₂) and carbon dioxide (CO₂) must diffuse across epithelial cells to pass through the blood because epithelial cells form the barrier between the external environment and the bloodstream.
Tall columnar cells are less ideal for rapid diffusion because
their elongated shape makes a longer distance for gases to diffuse through, slowing the process down
Since the tall columnar cells are too thick for gas exchange, gas-exchanging surfaces are lined with _______ cells. Why?
squamous epithelial cells
they are flatter and are simple with one layer of cells
reduces distance for gases to diffuse and allow for exchange of gases
facilitates diffusion of gases
To protect the gas exchange surfaces without mucus, ________ patrol the alveoli
alveolar macrophages
Vibrissae helps with what?
filter air and trap matter
What is lysozyme?
Where are they located?
nasal cavity/saliva
attacks peptidoglycan cell walls of gram positive bacteria (staph/strep)
What are macrophages?
A type of white blood cell that surrounds and kills microorganisms, removes dead cells, and stimulates the action of other immune system cells
How do mucosal surfaces help the immune system?
Secretory IgA (sIgA) is a polymeric IgA that's found on the mucosal surfaces of the respiratory, intestinal, and reproductive tracts of humans and other mammals. sIgA has several functions that help prevent infection by stopping bacteria, viruses, and other pathogens from attaching to epithelial cells
What are mast cells?
Mast cells are immune cells that play a role in many physiological and pathological conditions.
They are found in connective tissues throughout the body and are part of the immune and neuroimmune systems.
Mast cells are best known for their role in allergies and anaphylaxis, but they also have many protective functions
Immune response: Mast cells help the immune system respond to bacteria and parasites, and control other types of immune responses. They contain receptors that recognize bacterial pathogens, and can release mediators to kill pathogens and promote bacterial clearance.
Wound healing: Mast cells are involved in wound healing and angiogenesis.
Vascular permeability: When activated, mast cells release histamine and other vasoactive mediators that increase vascular permeability and local blood flow. This can help expel mucosal parasites and increase mucus production in epithelial cells, which may help immobilize pathogens.
Venom detoxification
What is surfactant?
a soapy substance that coats alveoli and reduces surface tension, preventing collapse and facilitating efficient gas exchange.
What is surface tension?
cohesive forces between molecules at the surface of a liquid, causing the surface to behave like a stretched elastic membrane
Why is surface tension relevant in the lungs?
because it can cause alveoli to collapse, making it difficult to inflate them during inhalation and impairing gas exchange
What is meant by a collapsed lung? What causes it?
typically refers to a condition known as a pneumothorax, which can occur when one or more alveoli within the lung fail to inflate properly
caused by:
obstruction
compression by buildup of air or fluid in pleural space
loss of surfactant
What is surfactant made of?
lipids and proteins, phospholipids
Surfactant is secreted by specialized cells in the
alveoli
What is the pleural space? What is it composed of?
membrane that surrounds the lungs
composed of:
visceral pleura
pleural space
parietal pleura
What is the pressure in the pleural space compared to atmospheric pressure?
The pressure in the pleural space is typically lower than atmospheric pressure
How does the lower pressure in the pleural space help keep the lungs expanded?
The lower pressure in the pleural space creates a negative pressure, which helps keep the lungs expanded by pulling them outward
What happens if fluid leaks into the pleural space?
it causes pleural effusion
it disrupts the negative pressure and can cause the lung to partially or completely collapse
During inspiration, what occurs to the lungs, diaphragm and muscles?
lungs expand outward
diaphragm contracts
external intercostal muscles contract
During FORCED expiration, what occurs to the lungs, diaphragm and muscles? What is forced expiration called?
diaphragm relaxes
internal intercostal muscles + abdominal muscles contract
exertion
What is emphysema?
disease in alveolar walls
reduces elasticity = exhalation relies on this
makes exhalation difficult
usually effects of cigarettes
What is boyle’s law?
increased volume = decreased pressure
Expiration is usually a _____ process so no muscle contraction is needed
passive
Exertion is usually a _____ process
active
What is the shape of the diaphragm during rest vs contraction?
rest: dome shaped, bulge upward
contraction: flattens and pulls cavity downward
What is spirometry?
measurement of air volume entering or exiting lungs during ventilation, calculated through a spirometer
What is tidal volume (TV)?
amount of air that moves in and out of lungs during normal relaxed breathing
What is expiratory reserve volume (ERV)?
extra amount of air you can forcefully exhale after you have exhaled normally
What is inspiratory reserve volume (IRV)?
extra amount of air you can inhale after you have inhaled normally
What is functional residual capacity (FRC)?
the amount of air remaining in your lungs after a normal relaxed exhalation
What is the inspiratory capacity (IC)?
The maximum amount of air you can breathe in after a normal exhalation
what is residual volume (RV)?
the amount of air that remains in your lungs after you exhale as much as possible
What is vital capacity?
the maximum amount of air you can exhale after taking the deepest breath you can
ex: If you take the deepest breath possible and then blow out all the air you can, the total air exhaled is your vital capacity
What is the total lung capacity (TLC)? How do you measure it?
the total amount of air your lungs can hold
sum of vital capacity and residual volume
TLC = VC + RV aka all the air you can exhale after the deepest breath plus the air that remains in your lugs after exhalation
What is the purpose of pulmonary arteries?
carry deoxygenated blood towards lungs away from heart
Pulmonary arteries have low levels of ____ and high levels of ____
O2
CO2
What surrounds the lungs and allows for passage of RBCs?
capillaries
Capillaries drain into _____ that drain into ______
venules
veins
Why is the lymphatic system in the lungs so beneficial?
aids removal of excess fluid from lungs
maintains healthy pulmonary circulation
What is the condition name for fluid buildup in the lungs?
pulmonary edema
If pressure is too high, what occurs to the fluid?
it can leak into the lung tissue from the capillaries
What is hemoglobin? What is it made of?
protein that acts as a oxygen carrier
contains heme an iron containing molecule
heme binds with globin protein
Fetal hemoglobin (HbF) has a _____ affinity for oxygen than adult hemoglobin. Why?
higher
fetuses need oxygen for their development to support growth/metabolism
What is an erythrocyte?
red blood cell
What are the different ways CO2 is carried in the blood?
dissolved in plasma
bound to hemoglobin at different site than O2
as bicarbonate ions in RBCs that go into the plasma
What elements make up air?
nitrogen 78%
oxygen 21%
What is hypoxemia?
low levels of oxygen in the blood
What is Henry’s law?
amount of gas that gets into liquid depends on partial pressure of gas and how much gas is around
How does Henry’s law affect the lungs and breathing?
When you breathe in, your lungs fill with air and has a lot of oxygen
The oxygen from the air goes into your blood because it has a high concentration of oxygen in the air
The oxygen in your blood gets carried all over your body to your cells and carbon dioxide heads back to the lungs
Since there is more CO2 in your blood than in the air in the lungs, the CO2 moves from blood to your lungs
Amount of gas dissolved into a liquid depends on two things:
partial pressure and solubility
Oxygen passes through 3 layers to get from alveoli to blood:
alveolar epithelium
interstitial liquid basement membrane
capillary endothelium
Which part of the brain regulates involuntary breathing?
medulla oblongata(brain stem)
___ and ___ are primary factors that influence breathing, ___ is secondary
CO2
pH
O2
Where/What are peripheral chemoreceptors found?
Where do they send their signals?
sensory cells in aorta and carotid arteries
monitor levels of CO2, pH and O2
send signals to medulla to adjust![16) Locations of peripheral chemoreceptors [22]. | Download Scientific Diagram](https://www.researchgate.net/publication/306097538/figure/fig12/AS:394992129462286@1471184870906/Fig-216-Locations-of-peripheral-chemoreceptors-22.png)
Where are central chemoreceptors found?
What are they?
What do they do?
sensory cells in medulla oblongata of brainstem
monitor levels of CO2 and pH in cerebrospinal fluid (CSF)
if CO2 increases due to hypoventilation or metabolic processes, sends message to brainstem to increase breathing rate
expels carbon dioxide and restore pH balance
What is hypercarbia?
condition where there is abnormally high levels of carbon dioxide in the blood
what is the carbonic buffer system? Why is it important?
CO2 + H2O → H2CO3 → H+ + HCO3-
regulate pH of blood and ensure it remains in narrow range for physiological functions
If blood pH increases, there is a _____ shift to the buffer equation as ______ of hydrogen ions
left
reduction
If blood pH decreases, there is a _____ shift to the buffer equation as ______ of hydrogen ions
right
increase
What is metabolic acidemia?
too much acid in blood
What is metabolic alkalemia?
too little acid in blood
Proper breathing regulation is crucial for maintaining ________
homeostasis
Asthma treatment often involves bronchodilators to alleviate symptoms caused by bronchoconstriction.
what is asthma?
what do bronchodilators do?
asthma is the spasm/constriction of the airway smooth muscles
medications used to expand and relax the airway muscles
What are the types of bronchodialators?
Beta 2 agonists
What is bronchodialation?
What neurotransmitter/hormone is involved?
smooth muscle relaxation, increases ventilation
mediated by epinephrine counteracts bronchoconstriction
What is bronchoconstriction?
What neurotransmitter/hormone is involved?
smooth muscle contraction in bronchi and bronchioles
triggered by irritants
regulated by parasympathetic nerves that release acetylcholine ACh
What are stretch receptors?
What are irritant receptors?
inhibit inspiratory signals to prevent over inflation
trigger bronchoconstriction to prevent irritants from entering
what are examples of pH regulation?
hyperventilation
respiratory acidosis: reduced ventilation
diabetic ketoacidosis
Note
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