PLSC14 International Relations

International Relations

The academic field of study dedicated to understanding the complex interactions and relationships among various global actors, including states, intergovernmental organizations (IGOs), non-governmental organizations (NGOs), multinational corporations (MNCs), and individuals. It examines the causes of war and peace, international political economy, global governance, human rights, and environmental issues.

State (in IR)

A sovereign political entity with a defined territory, a permanent population, an effective government, and the capacity to enter into relations with other states. It is considered the primary actor in the international system, possessing the legal authority within its borders.

Sovereignty

The supreme authority of a state over its territory and internal affairs, free from external control. It implies a state's right to govern itself without interference from other states, a core principle of international law established by the Treaty of Westphalia.

Nation

A group of people united by common culture, language, ethnicity, or shared historical experience, often aspiring to self-governance. A nation does not necessarily possess a state (e.g., the Kurds).

Nation-State

A geographical territory where the boundaries of a state largely coincide with the cultural and ethnic boundaries of a nation. It implies a strong sense of national identity within a sovereign political entity.

Nonstate Actors (General)

Diverse influential entities operating across national borders that are not sovereign states. They play crucial roles in shaping global politics, economics, and society, often by advocating for specific issues, providing services, or engaging in economic activities. Key categories include Intergovernmental Organizations (IGOs), Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs), and Multinational Corporations (MNCs).

Intergovernmental Organizations (IGOs)

Organizations whose members are sovereign states, established by treaty or other agreement, which cooperate on common issues. Examples include the United Nations, the European Union, and NATO.

Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs)

Private, voluntary organizations that operate independently of governments and pursue a variety of goals, including humanitarian aid, human rights advocacy, environmental protection, and development. Examples include Amnesty International, Doctors Without Borders, and the International Red Cross.

Multinational Corporations (MNCs)

Companies that operate in more than one country, with their production, sales, or service facilities located across national borders. They exert significant influence on international political economy through foreign direct investment, trade, and lobbying governments. Examples include Apple, Toyota, and Shell.

Globalization (General)

The increasing interconnectedness and interdependence of peoples and countries worldwide, driven by the expanding movement of goods, services, capital, technology, and information across national borders. It encompasses economic, political, social, and cultural dimensions, blurring traditional distinctions between domestic and international affairs.

Economic Globalization

The integration of national economies into a single global market through the free flow of goods, services, capital, and technology. It is characterized by increased international trade, foreign direct investment, and the rise of multinational corporations.

Political Globalization

The intensification and expansion of political interconnections across the globe, leading to the growth of international organizations, regional blocs, and global governance mechanisms, which challenge the traditional sovereignty of states.

Cultural Globalization

The worldwide spread of beliefs, values, norms, practices, and products, often leading to a homogenization of cultures but also to hybridization and increased cultural exchange. It is facilitated by mass media, internet, and global travel.

Collective goods problem

A fundamental dilemma in international relations concerning the provision of 'collective goods' that benefit all members of a group, regardless of their individual contributions. The challenge arises because individual actors have an incentive to 'free ride,' benefiting from the good without contributing, leading to under-provision or degradation of the good if everyone acts selfishly.

Collective Goods

Benefits that are non-excludable (once provided, no one can be prevented from enjoying them) and non-rival (one person's enjoyment does not diminish another's). Examples include clean air, national defense, and international peace and stability.

Free Rider Problem

The tendency for individuals or states to benefit from a collective good without contributing their fair share, relying instead on the contributions of others. This behavior undermines collective action and the provision of common goods.

Shared Responsibility

A principle advocating for all actors, particularly states, to contribute to the provision or management of collective goods, recognizing that the benefits accrue to all and active participation is necessary to overcome the collective goods problem.

Individual Level (in war theories)

One of the three main 'levels of analysis' in International Relations, focusing on the actions, perceptions, and predispositions of individual decision-makers and human nature itself as explanations for international phenomena like war or peace. It examines how leaders' personalities, beliefs, psychological biases, and even biological factors might influence foreign policy and international outcomes.

Human Nature (Realist view on war)

The idea, often associated with classical realism, that humans are inherently selfish, aggressive, and driven by a desire for power. This perspective suggests that conflict is an inevitable outcome of human nature, which then manifests in state behavior.

Thomas Hobbes

An influential English philosopher (1588-1679) whose work, particularly 'Leviathan', posited that in a 'state of nature' without a strong sovereign, human life would be 'solitary, poor, nasty, brutish, and short' due to inherent human selfishness and competition. His ideas are foundational to realist thought, suggesting that conflict is natural unless a powerful authority (or a balance of power) restrains actors.

State of Nature (Hobbesian concept)

A hypothetical condition of humankind without government, laws, or political authority. Hobbes argued that in this state, individuals are in a 'war of all against all' due to their self-interest and desire for power, leading to insecurity and constant conflict.

Systemic Level (in war theories)

One of the three main 'levels of analysis' in International Relations, which examines how the overarching structure of the international system influences state behavior and international outcomes. It emphasizes features like the distribution of power (unipolar, bipolar, multipolar) and the condition of anarchy, rather than internal state characteristics or individual decision-makers, to explain patterns of conflict and cooperation.

Anarchy (in IR)

The absence of a central, legitimate authority or world government above states capable of enforcing rules and maintaining order in the international system. It does not necessarily imply chaos, but rather the self-help nature of state interaction where each state is responsible for its own survival and security.

Self-Help System

A characteristic of an anarchic international system where states cannot rely on a higher authority for protection and thus must rely on their own capabilities (military, economic) to ensure their survival and security. This often leads to a security dilemma.

Security Dilemma

A situation in an anarchic international system where efforts by a state to increase its own security (e.g., by increasing its military strength) are perceived as threatening by other states, leading those states to also increase their security, resulting in a spiraling arms race and decreased security for all. It is a central concept in realist theory.

Prisoner's Dilemma

A classic game theory model illustrating a situation where two rational individuals, acting purely in their own self-interest, choose not to cooperate even though cooperation would lead to a better collective outcome. It highlights the challenge of achieving cooperation under anarchy and is often used to model arms races, environmental problems, and trade wars.

Game Theory

A mathematical framework used to model strategic interactions between rational decision-makers. It helps analyze situations where the outcome for each participant depends on the choices of all participants, providing insights into conflict, cooperation, and bargaining in international relations.

Payoff Matrix

In game theory, a table that shows the outcomes (payoffs) for each player in a game, given the choices made by all players. It is used to analyze optimal strategies and predict behaviors in strategic interactions like the Prisoner's Dilemma.

Dominant Strategy

In game theory, a strategy that is always the best option for a player, regardless of what the other player chooses. In the Prisoner's Dilemma, confessing (or defecting) is typically the dominant strategy for both players.

Nash Equilibrium (in Prisoner's Dilemma)

A concept in game theory where no player can improve their outcome by unilaterally changing their strategy, assuming the other players' strategies remain unchanged. In the classic Prisoner's Dilemma, mutual defection is the Nash Equilibrium, even though mutual cooperation would yield a better outcome for both.

Realism

A prominent theoretical perspective in International Relations that views the international system as anarchic and states as the primary, unitary, and rational actors driven by self-interest and the pursuit of power (military and economic). Realists believe that states constantly strive for security, often leading to competition and conflict, and that morality plays a secondary role to national interest.

Classical Realism

A strand of realism that emphasizes human nature as the root cause of state behavior and international conflict, focusing on the inherent desire for power and the 'will to power' of individuals and states. Key thinkers include Thucydides, Machiavelli, and Hans Morgenthau.

Neorealism

Also known as Structural Realism, this theory shifts the focus from human nature to the anarchic structure of the international system as the primary determinant of state behavior. Developed by Kenneth Waltz, neorealism argues that states are forced to pursue security and balance power because of the lack of a central authority, regardless of their internal characteristics or leaders' personalities.

Offensive Realism

A variant of neorealism, espoused by John Mearsheimer, which argues that states are not content with merely ensuring their own security but actively seek to maximize their relative power and achieve regional hegemony to guarantee long-term survival in an anarchic system. This leads to intense security competition.

Defensive Realism

A variant of neorealism, associated with Kenneth Waltz, which argues that states primarily seek to maintain their security and position within the international system rather than maximize power. States will generally pursue moderate strategies and balance against aggressors, as excessive power-seeking is seen as counterproductive and likely to provoke a counter-coalition.

Power (in IR Realism)

The ability of a state to influence others to get what it wants, or to resist attempts by others to influence it. In realism, power is often measured in terms of material capabilities, such as military strength, economic size, natural resources, and population, and is seen as the ultimate currency of international politics.

Relative Power

A state's power assessed in comparison to the power of other states. Realists emphasize relative power because the security of one state is often contingent on the capabilities of its rivals, rather than on its absolute power.

Balance of Power

A fundamental concept and strategy in realist theory, referring to the distribution of power among states such that no single state or bloc of states is able to dominate others. States attempt to maintain this balance through various means, including internal balancing (developing military capabilities) and external balancing (forming alliances) to deter potential aggressors and prevent hegemony.

Internal Balancing

A strategy employed by states to increase their own power, primarily through military build-up, economic development, and technological advancement, in order to counterbalance the power of a potential adversary.

External Balancing

A strategy employed by states to form alliances with other states to collectively counteract the power of a dominant or rising threat. This allows weaker states to pool resources and deter aggression more effectively than they could individually.

Hegemony

The dominance of one state or group of states over others in the international system, possessing overwhelming military, economic, and often cultural influence. A unipolar system is characterized by a single hegemon.

Hegemonic Stability Theory

A theory suggesting that the international system is more likely to remain stable and open (e.g., free trade, peace) when a single dominant state (hegemon) exists to provide and enforce global public goods, such as security and open markets, because it has both the interest and the capacity to do so.

Unipolarity

An international system structure where one state holds a preponderance of power and influence, making it the dominant actor. Often associated with the post-Cold War era with the United States as the sole superpower.

Bipolarity

An international system structure characterized by two strong, dominant powers or blocs of states, which largely shape the patterns of alliances, conflict, and cooperation. The Cold War, with the US and USSR, is the classic example of a bipolar system.

Multipolarity

An international system structure characterized by three or more great powers, each with significant influence. This system is often considered less stable than bipolarity because of the more complex and shifting alliance patterns and increased potential for miscalculation.

Unitary Rational Actor Model

A simplifying assumption in many International Relations theories, especially realism, which treats the state as if it were a single, coherent entity that makes decisions by carefully calculating its interests and choosing the course of action that maximizes its utility or attainment of goals (e.g., security, wealth). This model disregards internal governmental politics, bureaucratic processes, or individual leader biases.

Bureaucratic Politics Model

A model that challenges the unitary rational actor assumption, arguing that foreign policy decisions result from bargaining games among various governmental agencies and actors, each with its own interests, budgets, and standard operating procedures. 'Where you stand depends on where you sit.'

Organizational Process Model

A model that suggests foreign policy decisions are largely determined by the standard operating procedures (SOPs) and routines of government organizations. Decisions are less about rational choice and more about implementing pre-existing organizational 'programs' and responses, leading to predictable but sometimes suboptimal outcomes.

Liberalism (in IR Theory)

A major theoretical perspective in International Relations that emphasizes the possibility of cooperation, progress, and peace, often through international institutions, economic interdependence, and the spread of democracy. Liberals believe that states can overcome the challenges of anarchy through shared norms and interests, leading to mutual gains rather than just relative gains.

Neoliberal Institutionalism

A theory within the liberal tradition that acknowledges the anarchic nature of the international system but argues that international institutions (formal rules, norms, and organizations) can facilitate cooperation among self-interested states by providing information, reducing transaction costs, and creating expectations of reciprocity. Robert Keohane is a key figure.

Democratic Peace Theory

A core proposition of liberal international relations theory, which posits that democratic states are less likely to engage in war with other democratic states. Explanations often point to shared democratic values, institutional constraints (e.g., public accountability), and peaceful dispute resolution mechanisms inherent to democracies.

Interdependence (Economic)

The mutual reliance between states, particularly in economic terms, where states' economic health is significantly affected by the economic actions and conditions of others. Liberalism suggests that high levels of economic interdependence make war less likely, as conflict would harm all involved.

Constructivism (in IR Theory)

A theoretical approach in International Relations that emphasizes the role of ideas, norms, culture, and identity in shaping state behavior and the international system. Constructivists argue that 'anarchy is what states make of it' (Alexander Wendt), meaning that states' perceptions of anarchy and of each other are socially constructed rather than objectively given, allowing for change and transformation.

Social Construction of Reality

The constructivist idea that many aspects of international relations, such as threats, interests, and even anarchy, are not objective facts but are rather created and sustained through shared ideas, discourse, and social practices among actors. This implies that international norms and identities can change over time.

Identities (in Constructivism)

Shared understandings about who actors are and what their roles are in the international system, which influence their interests and behaviors. For constructivists, identities are formed through interaction and learning, shaping how states perceive and respond to others.

Norms (in Constructivism)

Collective expectations about appropriate behavior for actors with a given identity in a given context. Norms can be regulative (constraining behavior) or constitutive (shaping identities and interests), and they play a powerful role in guiding state action and shaping international order.

Marxism (in IR Theory)

A theoretical perspective that analyzes international relations through the lens of class struggle and economic inequality. Marxists argue that the global capitalist system drives exploitation, conflict, and imperialism, with wealthy core states exploiting poorer periphery states to maintain capital accumulation and perpetuate global power imbalances.

Dependency Theory

A structuralist theory, influenced by Marxism, arguing that the economic development of states in the 'Global South' is hindered by their integration into the global capitalist system in a subordinate position, making them dependent on the 'Global North' and perpetuating underdevelopment.

World-Systems Theory

An approach developed by Immanuel Wallerstein, which views the world as a single economic system composed of a 'core' (developed, industrialized countries), a 'periphery' (developing, raw material-producing countries), and a 'semi-periphery' (countries in between), where wealth flows from the periphery to the core due to exploitative economic relationships.

Feminist IR Theory

A critical theoretical approach that examines how gender roles, inequalities, and perspectives influence and are influenced by international politics. Feminists critique traditional IR theories for their 'masculinist' bias, highlighting issues such as the gendered impact of conflict, sexual violence in war, and the underrepresentation of women in foreign policy decision-making.

Post-structuralism (in IR Theory)

A critical theory in IR that analyzes the deep structures of knowledge and power that shape discourse and meaning in international politics. It questions universal truths and focuses on how language, narratives, and ideas construct our understanding of concepts like sovereignty, security, and identity, thereby influencing political practices.

Terrorism

The deliberate use of politically motivated violence, or the threat of violence, by non-state actors against non-combatants with the aim of creating widespread fear (terror) to achieve political objectives. It is distinguished from conventional warfare by its targets (civilians), methods (often indiscriminate), and actors (non-state groups rather than sovereign armies).

State-Sponsored Terrorism

Terrorist acts undertaken by individuals or groups that are directly or indirectly supported, funded, or directed by a state government. This involves a state using non-state actors as proxies to carry out attacks that serve its foreign policy objectives.

Weapons of Mass Destruction (WMDs)

Nuclear, biological, and chemical weapons, which have the potential to cause widespread death and destruction on a catastrophic scale. Their proliferation is a major international security concern due to their indiscriminate nature and potential for devastating impact.

Chemical Weapons Convention

An international arms control treaty (1997) that bans the production, stockpiling, and use of chemical weapons and their precursors. It includes provisions for verification (routine inspections by the OPCW) and requires member states to destroy existing stockpiles. It aims to eliminate an entire category of WMDs globally.

Biological Weapons Convention (BWC)

An international disarmament treaty (1972) that prohibits the development, production, and stockpiling of biological and toxin weapons. Unlike the CWC, it lacks a strong verification mechanism, making enforcement and compliance more challenging.

Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT)

A landmark international treaty (1968) whose objectives are to prevent the spread of nuclear weapons and weapons technology, to promote cooperation in the peaceful uses of nuclear energy, and to further the goal of achieving nuclear disarmament. It distinguishes between nuclear-weapon states (NWS) and non-nuclear-weapon states (NNWS).

International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA)

An international organization (1957) that works within the UN system to promote the safe, secure, and peaceful use of nuclear technologies. It serves as the world's 'atoms for peace' organization and is responsible for verifying compliance with the NPT by conducting inspections of nuclear facilities.

World Trade Organization

A global intergovernmental organization (1995) that provides a framework for international trade by regulating trade agreements, resolving trade disputes, and promoting the reduction of barriers to international trade. Its core principles include non-discrimination (most-favored-nation and national treatment) and encouraging fair competition among its more than 160 member states.

Most-Favored-Nation (MFN) Status

A WTO principle that requires member countries to treat all other member countries equally in terms of trade policies (e.g., tariffs, customs duties). If a country grants a special favor (like lower tariffs) to one WTO member, it must do the same for all other WTO members.

National Treatment (WTO)

A WTO principle asserting that imported and locally produced goods and services should be treated equally after the foreign goods have entered the market. This means that taxes or regulations should not discriminate against imports once they are inside the country.

Tariffs

Taxes imposed by a government on imported goods or services. Tariffs increase the price of imports, making them less competitive with domestically produced goods, and can be used to protect domestic industries or generate revenue.

Non-Tariff Barriers (NTBs)

Trade restrictions other than tariffs, used to restrict imports. Examples include quotas, subsidies, import licensing, cumbersome customs procedures, and technical standards that favor domestic products. NTBs can be more difficult to identify and negotiate away than tariffs.

Quota (Trade)

A government-imposed limit on the quantity of a specific good that can be imported or exported during a defined period. Quotas are a form of non-tariff barrier used to restrict trade and protect domestic industries.

Foreign Direct Investment (FDI)

An investment by a firm or individual into a foreign business operation, where the investor gains lasting interest and a significant degree of influence or control over the foreign entity. FDI involves establishing new facilities (greenfield investment) or acquiring/merging with existing foreign firms, playing a crucial role in economic globalization and the operation of MNCs.

Greenfield Investment (FDI)

A type of foreign direct investment where a parent company establishes a completely new operation in a foreign country, ranging from building new production facilities to setting up new offices and distribution networks from scratch.

Mergers and Acquisitions (FDI)

A form of foreign direct investment where a company purchases or combines with an existing company in a foreign country. This allows for rapid market entry and access to existing infrastructure, customer bases, and labor.

Debt

Refers to the accumulation of financial obligations owed by a government (public debt) or a country as a whole (external debt to foreign entities). It arises from borrowing to finance budget deficits or international trade imbalances, and excessive debt can lead to economic instability, debt crises, and reduced investment.

Sovereign Debt

Debt issued by a national government in its own currency or in foreign currencies to finance public spending. The ability to service this debt is crucial for a country's financial stability and international creditworthiness.

Debt Crisis

A situation where a country is unable to pay its national debts, often leading to default, economic recession, devaluations, and requests for international bailouts or debt restructuring. Such crises can have ripple effects on the global financial system.

International Monetary Fund (IMF)

An international organization (1944) of 190 countries working to foster global monetary cooperation, secure financial stability, facilitate international trade, promote high employment and sustainable economic growth, and reduce poverty around the world. It provides financial assistance (loans) to countries facing balance of payments problems, often with conditionality.

World Bank

A group of international financial institutions (1944) that provides loans and grants to the governments of poorer countries for the purpose of pursuing capital projects. Its official goal is the reduction of poverty.

Bretton Woods System

A monetary management system established in 1944 that fixed the exchange rates among convertible currencies, with the U.S. dollar convertible to gold. It created the IMF and the World Bank to promote international monetary cooperation, stability, and reconstruction, effectively establishing the post-WWII economic order, until its collapse in 1971.

Exchange Rates

The value of one currency in terms of another currency. Exchange rates affect a country's international trade balance, making imports more or less expensive and exports more or less competitive.

Floating Exchange Rate

An exchange rate regime where the value of a country's currency is determined by market forces (supply and demand for the currency) rather than by central bank intervention or a fixed peg. Most major currencies today operate under a floating exchange rate system.

Fixed Exchange Rate

An exchange rate regime where a country's currency value is pegged to the value of another single currency, a basket of currencies, or to a commodity such as gold. Governments often intervene in the market to maintain the agreed-upon rate.

Global South

A term used to refer to countries often characterized by lower levels of economic development, historical experiences of colonialism, reliance on primary commodity exports, and greater vulnerability to global economic and environmental shocks. It generally encompasses countries in Africa, Latin America, and developing Asia, and is often contrasted with the 'Global North' (developed countries).

Development (Economic)

The sustained effort by countries, often with international assistance, to improve the economic well-being and quality of life for their populations. This involves industrialization, increased GDP per capita, technological advancement, and improvements in health, education, and infrastructure.

Human Development Index (HDI)

A composite statistic that measures key dimensions of human development: a long and healthy life (life expectancy), being knowledgeable (education), and a decent standard of living (Gross National Income per capita). It provides a broader measure of development than purely economic indicators.

North-South Divide

A socio-economic and political categorization that divides the world into the wealthier, more industrialized countries (Global North) and the poorer, less developed countries (Global South), often highlighting disparities in wealth, resources, and influence in international relations.

Collective Goods Problem (environmental issues)

The challenge inherent in managing global environmental issues, such as climate change, ozone depletion, and biodiversity loss, because they represent collective goods. No single state can solve these problems alone, and all states benefit from a healthy environment, yet individual states have incentives to 'free ride' on the efforts of others, making international cooperation difficult but essential.

Climate Change

A long-term shift in global or regional climate patterns, primarily caused by the increase in atmospheric concentrations of greenhouse gases due to human activities (e.g., burning fossil fuels). It is a quintessential collective goods problem requiring global cooperation to mitigate its effects.

Ozone Depletion

The thinning of the Earth's ozone layer, primarily caused by the emission of chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) and other ozone-depleting substances. This was a significant environmental collective goods problem that saw relatively successful international cooperation through the Montreal Protocol.

Montreal Protocol

An international treaty (1987) designed to protect the ozone layer by phasing out the production of numerous substances responsible for ozone depletion. It is widely considered one of the most successful international environmental agreements.

Sustainable Development

Development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs. It integrates economic growth, social equity, and environmental protection, recognizing the interdependence of these three pillars.

Kyoto Protocol

An international treaty (1997) that committed industrialized countries to reducing greenhouse gas emissions. It was an early attempt to address climate change under the UNFCCC framework, but faced challenges with compliance and participation from major emitters.

Paris Agreement

A legally binding international treaty on climate change (2015) adopted by 196 Parties at COP21. Its goal is to limit global warming to well below 2, preferably to 1.5 degrees Celsius, compared to pre-industrial levels. It requires all parties to put forward their best efforts through Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs).

Demographic transition

A multi-stage model describing the historical shift in birth and death rates from high to low levels in a population. This transition typically occurs as a country undergoes economic development, industrialization, and improvements in healthcare, sanitation, and education, resulting in changes in population growth patterns.

Stage 1: High Stationary (Demographic Transition)

Characterized by very high birth rates and very high death rates, resulting in little or no population growth. This stage is typical of pre-industrial societies with limited access to food, healthcare, and sanitation.

Stage 2: Early Expanding (Demographic Transition)

Characterized by high birth rates and rapidly falling death rates (due to improvements in food supply, sanitation, and medicine), leading to a rapid increase in population growth. Many least developed countries are currently in this stage.