AP Psychology FULL REVIEW

Psychology

The scientific study of behavior and mental processes.

Mental processes

Physiological and cognitive processes that underlie behavior.

Psyche

Greek root meaning 'soul'.

Logos

Greek root meaning 'the study of a subject' (reason or logic).

Birth of Psychology (1879)

Marking the birth of psychology with the establishment of the first psychology laboratory by Wilhelm Wundt at Leipzig.

Wilhelm Wundt

German founder of psychology; established the first lab (1879) and first psychology journal (1881).

G. Stanley Hall

Wundt student; established the first American psychology lab (1883) and first American psychology journal (1887); father of the APA.

Structuralism

School led by Edward Titchener that sought to analyze conscious experience into basic elements using introspection.

Introspection

Careful, systematic self-observation of one’s own conscious experience.

Edward Titchener

Leader of Structuralism at Cornell University.

Functionalism

School led by William James that emphasized the function and purpose of consciousness and the flow of thought.

William James

Functionalist who wrote The Principles of Psychology (1890) and promoted study of the function of consciousness.

Applied Psychology

A modern school that focuses on practical, real-world applications of psychological principles.

Behavioralism/Behaviorism

School of psychology that studies only observable behavior and emphasizes stimuli–response relationships.

John B. Watson

Founder of Behaviorism; argued psychology should study observable behavior and be environment-driven.

B.F. Skinner

Behaviorist who emphasized environmental factors shaping behavior and argued internal thoughts are not scientifically observable.

Unconscious

Thoughts, memories, and desires below conscious awareness that influence behavior.

Psychoanalytic Theory

Freud’s theory focusing on unconscious determinants of behavior, personality, motivation, and mental disorders.

Freud

Originator of psychoanalytic theory; emphasized unconscious conflicts, sexuality, and dreams.

Humanism

A 1950s movement stressing human potential, personal growth, and unique human qualities.

Carl Rogers

Humanist who highlighted self-concept and the drive toward personal growth.

Abraham Maslow

Humanist who stressed personal growth and self-actualization (growth-oriented needs).

Applied Psychology (practical use)

Branches aimed at addressing everyday problems, including clinical, counseling, educational, and industrial/organizational psychology.

Clinical Psychology

Diagnosis and treatment of psychological disorders (non-medical approach).

Counseling Psychology

Assistance to people dealing with everyday problems of moderate severity.

Educational & School Psychology

Improving teaching, curriculum, and educational practices.

Industrial & Organizational Psychology

Applying psychology to business settings to improve productivity and work life.

Cognitive Psychology

Study of higher mental processes such as memory, reasoning, information processing, language, problem solving, and creativity.

Jean Piaget

Researcher on children’s cognitive development (1954).

Noam Chomsky

Linguist whose work helped spark the cognitive revolution (1957).

Herbert A. Simon

Problem-solving researcher; Nobel Prize in 1978 for work on problem-solving and decision-making.

Evolutionary Psychology

Study of behavioral processes in terms of adaptive value across generations; includes sex-based differences in abilities.

Natural Selection

Darwinian idea that psychological traits must serve an adaptive purpose.

Culture

Shared customs, beliefs, values, norms, and institutions transmitted across generations.

Ethnocentrism

Tendency to view one’s own group as superior and the standard for judging others.

Nature vs. Nurture

Debate over the roles of heredity and environment in shaping behavior; today both are important.

Empiricism

Knowledge should be gained through observation and evidence; the scientific method emphasizes evidence.

Theory

A system of interrelated ideas used to explain a set of observations.

Multifactorial Causation

Behavior is governed by a complex network of interacting factors.

Experimental Psychology

Area focusing on sensation, perception, learning, conditioning, motivation, and emotion.

Physiological Psychology

Study of how genetics, brain, nervous/endocrine systems, and bodily chemicals influence behavior.

Psychometrics

Measurement of behavior and capacities through psychological tests.

Sensation & Perception

Topics in psychology concerning how we detect and interpret sensory information.

Scientific Method

Systematic process of observation, testing, and evidence-based conclusions.

Subjective Bias in Perception

Perception can be influenced by motives and expectations, leading to personal interpretation.

Scientific Approach

A method of studying behavior that assumes events follow laws and can be described, explained, and predicted through systematic investigation.

Law

A regular, predictable relationship in nature used to explain phenomena (e.g., gravity).

Hypothesis

A testable statement about the relationship between two or more variables.

Variable

Any measurable characteristic or behavior that can be controlled or observed in a study.

Measurement

The process of describing or quantifying a variable clearly and precisely.

Operational Definition

A precise statement of how a variable will be measured or manipulated.

Empirical

Knowledge gained through observation and experience rather than theory alone.

Research Method

The plan or strategy used to collect and analyze data in a study.

Participants/Subjects

Persons or animals whose behavior is observed in a study.

Data Collection Techniques

Procedures for making empirical observations and measurements (e.g., direct observation, questionnaire, interview, test, physiological recording, archival records).

Journal

A periodical that publishes scholarly material within a narrow field.

Experimental Research

A method in which the researcher manipulates the independent variable to observe effects on the dependent variable.

Independent Variable

The variable the experimenter actively manipulates.

Dependent Variable

The variable measured to assess the effect of the manipulation.

Experimental Group

Subjects who receive the treatment or manipulation of the independent variable.

Control Group

Subjects that do not receive the treatment, used for comparison.

Extraneous Variables

Variables other than the independent variable that could influence the dependent variable.

Confounding Variables

When two variables are linked in a way that makes it hard to determine their separate effects.

Random Assignment

Each subject has an equal chance of being assigned to any group.

Interaction

The effect of one variable depends on the level of another variable.

Descriptive/Correlational Research

Research methods describing patterns of behavior and examining relationships when researchers cannot control variables (naturalistic observation, case studies, surveys).

Naturalistic Observation

Careful observation of behavior in natural settings without intervention.

Case Study

In-depth investigation of an individual; often lacks empirical data and can be highly subjective.

Survey

Questionnaires or interviews used to gather information about participants’ background and behavior; relies on self-report data.

Self-Report Data

Information provided directly by participants about themselves.

Social Desirability Bias

Tendency to give socially approved answers rather than truthful ones.

Response Set

Tendency to respond in a patterned way irrespective of content (e.g., agreeing with everything).

Experimenter Bias

Researchers' expectations can influence results.

Double-Blind

A procedure where neither participants nor experimenters know group assignments to reduce bias.

Placebo Effect

Participants' expectations lead to perceived or actual improvements despite no active treatment.

Replication

Repeating a study to see whether results are consistent.

Population

The larger group from which a sample is drawn.

Sample

A subset of the population that participates in the study.

Sampling Bias

A bias that results when a sample is not representative of the population.

Statistical Significance

The probability that findings are not due to chance is very low (commonly less than 5%).

Descriptive Statistics

Statistics that organize, summarize, and describe data.

Central Tendency

A central or typical value of a data set (median, mean, or mode).

Median

The middle value of a distribution.

Mean

The arithmetic average of a set of scores.

Mode

The most frequently occurring score in a data set.

Neuron

Individual cells in the nervous system that receive, integrate, and transmit information; the basic communication units.

Soma

Cell body of the neuron that contains the nucleus and major cellular organelles.

Dendrite

Branch-like parts of a neuron that receive information from other neurons.

Axon

Long fiber that transmits information away from the neuron to other neurons, muscles, or glands.

Myelin Sheath

Insulating layer around some axons that speeds neural transmission.

Terminal Button

Knobs at the end of an axon where neurotransmitters are released to activate neighboring neurons.

Synapse

Junction where information is transmitted from one neuron to another.

Glia

Support cells in the nervous system that nourish neurons, remove waste, and insulate axons.

Neurotransmitters

Chemicals that transmit information across the synaptic cleft from one neuron to another.

Acetylcholine

Neurotransmitter between motor neurons and voluntary muscles; involved in muscle activation.

Dopamine

Monoamine involved in movement control and reward; degeneration linked to Parkinson's and overactivity linked to schizophrenia.

Norepinephrine

Monoamine involved in arousal and mood; low levels linked to depression.

Serotonin

Monoamine involved in sleep, wakefulness, and eating behavior; imbalance linked to mood disorders.

GABA

Gamma-aminobutyric acid; the main inhibitory neurotransmitter in the brain; reduces neural excitability.

Endorphins

Endogenous opioids that modulate pain and produce other effects; act on endorphin receptors.